Despite being the second highest elevation (approx. 3,670 ft/ 1,120 m)in Belize whose summit is many mountain climbers’ holy grail, the rumor goes less than 200 people have actually reached the top of this herculean mountain. That doesn’t stop adventurous travelers and intrepid Belizean hikers from trying, though, and many do in fact get to witness the vast rainforest canopy from atop the jutting rock. Every year, (pandemic notwithstanding) adrenaline-chasing hikers await impatiently for the dry season to open so they can finally take on the arduous journey they have spent months – if not more – preparing for.

A much-needed reprieve from a year cooped up indoors, spending three to five days in the Belizean jungle with only the broad-leafed trees and curious fur-covered fauna as sleeping companions is definitely welcomed. The journey begins at the world’s only jaguar preserve, Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in the Stann Creek District. This protected area on its own is one travelers must explore, if not for the sole reason of the impressive double waterfalls after the hike (but that’s for another time.) This time, you begin the journey here so that 27km later, the sight of undulating green-carpeted hills below you is seared into your memory forever.

Most complete the first leg of the journey in 12 –19 km, stopping at a camp to rest for the night. After settling into your comfy hammock and falling asleep to nearby gurgling streams (no white noise machine needed here), you awake and set off on to summit the daunting Victoria Peak. It usually takes three to six hours of steep inclines, using roots to pull yourself up, and thigh-burning grapples. But by the time you arrive, the reward has never felt so refreshing. We recommend taking a moment to center yourself, and snap photos of the well-earned view splayed out at your feet. It is now time to return back to the 19km camp (and you just might spot one a shy jaguar or two on your way down!)

There’s something minuscule that loosens inside you when you hear them for the first time: the vibrations of the segunda humming in your veins as you watch the dancer — a swatch of color — bask in the cacophony that are the Garifuna drums.

Nothing prepares you for the lightness that suddenly enters your body, pooling at your feet, until you can’t help but join in the swaying of the hips, the tapping of the soles and the smile on your lips.

This is the joy of the Garifuna.

The Garifuna Drumming Tour is one that many underestimate, but quickly becomes the highlight of many travelers’ Belize vacation. The culturally saturated village of Hopkins in the southeast coast is the perfect hub to experience it. You’ll find yourself on a sandy beach with about 4 or 5 Garifuna drummers banging away rhythms that threaten to reveal your (poor) dance skills. In no time, your body will beg to join the dancer and the orbit of her flapping skirts. And more often than not, you’ll eventually be invited to show off your own drumming skills alongside the maestros. Their melodic voices will carry you through song after Garinagu song, until you’re famished for the next part of the tour: a Hudut cooking class.

The traditional Garifuna dish will destroy your palate when it comes to other seafood dishes, because after that, nothing will ever be as good. You’ll learn how to make this coconut-based fish soup entirely from scratch, down to the mashing of green plantain in an old-school giant wooden mortar + pestle. Don’t worry, that arm workout will be rewarded with a hot, spice-ridden soup that will have you learning the phrase “straight from the fiyaa haat! (Fire hearth)”

At the end of this roughly two-hour tour, your feet will be happy, your belly full and your appreciation for the Garifuna culture multiplied by tenfold.

And that’s just scratching the surface of what a cultural tour is like in Belize.

Everyone’s Belize vacation experience is unique, whether they decided to have a solo trip, a romantic getaway or a group trip with the squad. However, there are certain requirements that absolutely cement your experience as the basis for any Belize vacation. Here are some of the most popular tropes that every Belize traveler shares with the locals living them out every single day.

1) There is such a thing as “Belizean timing.” If the motto for Caye Caulker (Go Slow) is any indication to this established notion, Belizeans really do abide by a “Belizean timing.” Here’s a tip for your first trip to Belize: nothing will ever start on time. There’s a good chance any event or friend meet-up will start around a half hour later, the earliest. We like to take our time, so you should, too. There’s no need to stress over here, leave that for when you return home! Here, the Belizean timing is a blessing, reminding you to not take life too seriously and that everything happens in due time.

2) No such thing as too much pepper. If you listen closely, you can hear Marie Sharp evangelists touting support for the famous pepper sauce that has become the mascot for pepper in Belize. Local pepper sauces grace almost every single table across restaurants and homes in Belize. And for those that don’t, it’s not an unusual sight to see a local pull out a mini-sized pepper bottle from the depths of their pocket (it’s true, I’ve seen it happen,) and drizzle a bit onto their rice and beans. If you don’t leave Belize with a bunch of these little bottles as souvenirs, you did your vacation wrong.

3) The Blue Hole is absolutely worth all the hype. No matter how many times you fly over the Great Blue Hole, it’ll leave you in awe every single time. True, it is our most famous selling point, but for good reason. This natural phenomenon is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, deservedly so. The experience of flying across the barrier reef, spotting the gaping, dark blue cavern from above, is arguably close to enlightenment. Every person who has been lucky enough to experience this tour has never regretted it. In fact, many do repeat trips! Definitely keep it on your bucket list when traveling to Belize.

4) A Maya site is like pizza. There is no bad pizza. We’ve all heard the original rendition of this saying, but it also applies to our many Maya temples scattered across Belize. Sure, Mr. Popular Xunantunich is a gargantuan marvel that everyone should visit when in San Ignacio, but don’t overlook the many others that might be more accessible to your location, with the same amount of grandeur. Caracol is massively underrated, despite housing the tallest temple in the entire region. Lamanai in the north has a unique means to access the site, earning the experience extra adventure points. And let’s not forget about Altun Ha, the closest one to the international airport, yet devoid of crowds. In Belize, no Maya site will leave you wanting for more, we promise.

5) The never-ending debate about ketchup on garnaches. This debate plagues Belizeans every day, the social media spheres battling as to whether ketchup belongs on the fried-tortilla treats that are piled high with refried beans, cheese and other toppings. (Serious stuff, I know). If you have experienced this traditional dish in Belize, you have probably been subjected to a bystander’s aggressive suggestion (or their mortification, depending on the region) to add ketchup to garnaches. However, there is no wrong way to eat this Belizean dish (though about 50% of Belize disagrees.) ­

Heritage and culture
Costa Rican culture is in many ways a reflection of its racial diversity. The predominant influence has long been European, which is reflected in everything from the official language — Spanish — to the architecture of the country’s churches and other historic buildings. The indigenous influence is less visible, but can be found in everything from the tortillas that are a staple of the Costa Rican diet, to the handmade ceramics sold at roadside stands.

An important aspect of Costa Rica’s cultural legacy is our love for peace and democracy. The Ticos proudly point out the nation is one of the few Latin American countries where a military dictatorship has not dominated politics.

The Ticos
Costa Ricans are proud to have more than a century of democratic tradition and more than 68 years without a military. With the money saved, the country is better able to focus on improving the quality of life of its citizens. This is one of the many reasons why Costa Ricans, also known as “Ticos,” are such a happy and welcoming people.

Famous for their hospitality, Ticos often go out of their way to help to visitors with directions or offer other assistance if needed. It is said that “Ticos” are the nation’s best asset. Once visitors experience their hospitality, visitors too are convinced.

Costa Rica is located in Central America, connecting North and South America. It borders Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south. Because of its location, warm weather predominates, but many different microclimates are found throughout the country. According to the National Statistics and Census Institute, Costa Rica has a population of approximately 4,890,379, of which 2,467,829 are men and 2,422,551 are women.

The country is divided into seven provinces (San José, its capital, Alajuela, Cartago, Heredia, Puntarenas, Guanacaste and Limón), 81 cantons and 463 districts. It stretches across 51,100 square kilometers, which is the size of the country. It is a democratic, free and independent Republic. Most of the population professes the Catholic religion and enjoys freedom of religion. Its currency is the colón, and its official language is Spanish.

One of the most important and recognized characteristics of the country was the abolition of its army on Dec. 1, 1948 by former President José Figueres Ferrer. On that date, peace became one of the main principles of Costa Rica, differentiating it from other Central American countries that utilize the military as a method of defense.

Costa Rica has national patriotic symbols that represent part of the identity and traditions of Costa Ricans, particularly the National Anthem of Costa Rica, the Shield of the Republic of Costa Rica, the National Flag, the White-Tailed Deer, the Guaria Morada (a type of orchid that is the national flower), Marimba, Oxcarts, the Yigüirro (or clay-colored thrush, the national bird), the Guanacaste Tree, The Pre-Columbian Spheres of Diquís, the manatee, the Torch of Independence and the Crestones of Chirripó National Park.

Official language
Spanish. A large portion of the population speaks English as a second language.

Official religion
Roman Catholic; complete freedom of religion.

Official currency
Costa Rican Colón (plural colones) (¢)

Administrative divisions
Costa Rica is divided into seven provinces: San José, Alajuela, Heredia, Cartago, Puntarenas, Guanacaste, and Limón. Each province is divided into cantons, which are further subdivided into districts.

The country’s marine territory consists of the Isla del Coco, a World Natural Heritage site, located 548 km from Cabo Blanco, in the Pacific Ocean. It has a land area of 2,400 hectares and a marine territory of 73,100 hectares.

National symbols
The guaria morada: The guaria morada (Cattleya skinneri), a species of orchid, was declared the national flower of Costa Rica on July 15, 1939.

National flag: The national flag of Costa Rica. Under Decree no. 768 of October 25, 1949, National Flag Day (Día del Pabellón Nacional) is celebrated on November 12th of each year. The National Flag of the Republic is a tricolor with five horizontal bands: a red band in the center between two bands of white, each of which is followed by a blue band. The width of each band is one-sixth of the total width of the flag, with the red band in the center taking up two-sixths of the width. The coat of arms must be placed in the center of the red band on a white background.

Guanacaste tree: Enterolobium cyclocarpum. On August 31, 1959, it was declared as the national tree of Costa Rica.
Coat of arms of Costa Rica: The Coat of Arms shows three volcanoes and a wide valley between two oceans, with a merchant ship in each ocean. A rising sun is shown on the far left of the upper line, which marks the horizon. The crest is closed by two palm fronds that are united by a wide, white sash bearing golden letters that spell out “República de Costa Rica”.

Clay-colored thrush: The clay-colored thush (or yigüirro) was declared the national bird of Costa Rica in 1977 in the interest of the protection of this and other bird species in the country.

The traditional ox-cart: The ox-cart, or carreta, was declared a national symbol of labor in 1988. While they are no longer used to transport coffee, the colorful paint and the original designs made by artisans have made them famous around the world.
The national anthem: declared a national symbol on June 15, 1949 by Decree no. 551. The music was written in 1852 by the poet Manuel María Gutiérrez and the lyrics were written by José María Zeledón.

The white-tailed deer: in accordance with Legislative Decree No. 7497, it has been the national symbol of Costa Rican wildlife since June 8, 1995.

The Marimba: declared the national instrument par excellence by Executive Order No. 25114-C on September 3, 1996. It is considered to be the musical instrument that is associated with the most diverse popular festivals in Costa Rica.

The Torch of Independence: declared a national symbol on September 14, 2005 by Decree No. 32647-C. Since 1964, the torch tours Central America as a representation of the freedom and independence of Central American peoples.

The Crestones of Chirripó National Park: Declared a national symbol by Law 8943, published in the Official Journal La Gaceta No. 170 on September 5, 2011. The Costa Rican Tourism Board has been authorized to promote them as a tourist attraction in Chirripó National Park.
The manatee: was declared a symbol of Costa Rica’s marine fauna and of the hope and interest of Costa Rican children in protecting natural resources contained in the national territory by Law no. 9264 of August 7, 2014, published in the Official Journal La Gaceta no. 183 on September 24, 2014.

Pre-Columbian Spheres: In 2014, UNESCO chose the Diquís grouping of villages belonging to pre-Columbian chieftainships with stone spheres as a World Heritage Site. The Costa Rican Legislative Assembly declared them to be a national symbol of the country following the approval of Law no. 9265 of August 11, 2014, published in the Official Journal La Gaceta no. 201 on October 20, 2014. Archeologists believe that the stones were placed there by the indigenous peoples of the area between 300 B.C. and 300 A.D., though the sculptures have not yet been able to be scientifically dated.

The National Theater: On February 5 of this year, the then-President of the Republic, Luis Guillermo Solís, signed the law declaring the National Theater of Costa Rica as a National Symbol of Historical Archeological Heritage and Cultural Liberty. The law was approved in a second reading by 40 deputies.

Main distances
246 km (153 mi) by land from Puntarenas to Limón.
534 km (337 mi) by land from Peñas Blancas, at the Nicaraguan border, to Paso Canoas, at the border with Panama.
Highest point: Cerro Chirripó, at 3,819 meters (12,529 feet) above sea level.
Highest volcano: Volcán Irazú.
Largest volcanic crater: Volcán Poás crater, with a diameter of 1,320 m (43,307 ft) and a depth of 300 m (984 ft).

Electric coverage
97% of the national territory has electric power. Residential voltage is 110V.

Office hours
Public sector: Monday to Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. State banks: Monday to Friday, 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m.

Private sector
Monday to Friday, 9:00 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. The majority of businesses operate on Saturdays and Sundays until midday.

People
Costa Rica’s richness also lies in the cultural diversity of our people. Currently, there are ethnic groups and colonies of immigrants including African descendants, Chinese, Hebrew, Lebanese, Italian, etc.; as well as the indigenous populations of the Bribri, Cabecar, Maleku, Teribe, Boruca, Ngöbe, Huetar, and Chorotega.

Plant & Animals Everywhere
Costa Rica´s territory is so small that it encompasses only 0.03 percent of the planet´s surface but is still within the top 20 richest countries in biodiversity on Earth in terms of species density. That means that it is possible to find more species in 1,000 km2 in Costa Rica as in the same area in huge countries like Brazil or Colombia.

Let´s use Brazil as an example. Despite being 166.6 times bigger than Costa Rica, Brazil averages 6.5 plant species, 0.2 bird species and 0.05 mammal species per 1,000 km2. Meanwhile, Costa Rica averages 234.8 plant species, 16.9 bird species and 4.6 mammal species in that same 1,000 km2.

In fact, with only 51,100 km2 of total territory, Costa Rica has nearly half a million species, representing 4 percent of the planet´s biodiversity. We hope all the world is ready to discover it.

Biggest Oxcart & Yoke in the world
The oxcart is the national symbol of the traditional Costa Rican transport device and it is also considered a genuine expression of popular art. The same applies to the wooden apparatus which fits over the necks of two oxen and allows the beasts to be “yoke” harnessed together in order to pull a single cart. And so important are both that in the country it is possible to find the world´s largest oxcart and yoke, created by notable Costa Rican artisans and painters.

This oxcart, designed in 2006, is found in Sarchi, and is four meters in height and six in length and stands out not only for its monumental size, but also for the vivid colors with which is decorated. In the old days, oxcarts were the primary means of getting coffee beans, as well as other products, to markets and processing facilities.

The yoke, on the other hand, measures two meters in height and four meters in length, and was created in 2007 using hundreds of gallons of paint to decorate it.

Sarchi is a community recognized as the birthplace of Costa Rican arts and crafts and is a must-see destination for any visitor who wishes to appreciate traditional artistry.

Costa Rica’s Little Amazonas
There is a place in Costa Rica where the exuberance of natural wildlife and visitors become one and where the water is a giant mirror reflecting the lush foliage all around. Surrounded by a system of natural canals and lagoons running from southeast to northeast, Tortuguero National Park, located in the Northern Caribbean side, is without any doubt our little Amazonas. It is also one of the most important places in the world for the protection of the green turtle and home of other species such as the manatee, the American crocodile and the Gaspar fish, which is considered a living fossil.

Majestic birds such as the Great Blue Heron, the biggest heron in the country, and the Northern Jacana, famous in the animal world because the female protects the territory while the male nests the eggs, populate and thrive in this rich environment. The birds are so diverse that they account for approximately half of the species found in Costa Rica and surpass the number of species found in all Europe. Herbal swamps, marshlands and ‘flooded’ forests are part of this array of diverse habitats.

But Tortuguero is not only about nature. Being on the Caribbean side, it is one of the larger regions of Afro-Caribbean culture in the country. The majority of its population has Jamaican origins and keeps their food, dances and traditions. Their dishes are mostly spicy and many include coconut, giving Tortuguero a well-founded reputation to experience nature and culture.

Costa Rica’s marvels of Fire
As part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, Costa Rica´s volcanoes are among the most mesmerizing in the world. In fact, the present-day landmass known as Costa Rica is the result of complex volcanic activity that took place some 75 million years ago and still continues today.

Counting every location or crater where an eruption has occurred within its borders, Costa Rica volcanoes boast a stunning 112 sites throughout the country. Most Costa Rica volcanoes and their surrounding areas have been made into national parks.

One of the most popular is the Arenal Volcano, which last erupted in 1968. Until then, it was assumed that the volcano was just another peak of the mountain range. The mountain and surrounding area were declared a national park in 1994. Thermal hot springs are now the area’s main attraction, most of which boast nearby trails and numerous lookout points.

Currently, Arenal Volcano only releases gases in crater C and has fumarole activity in crater D. Seismic monitoring of the volcano indicates that volcanic activity remains low and external manifestations have been reduced to a minimum. In 2010, after 42 years of uninterrupted volcanic activity, the volcano entered a resting phase, ceasing explosive eruptions, pyroclastic flow and lava spilling. However, according to scientists, Arenal Volcano remains active.

An Indigenous Legacy that is still a mystery
Although the indigenous populations inhabiting Costa Rica before the Spanish arrival did not build architectural structures rivaling the Mayan pyramids of northern Central America, they did leave behind elaborately carved stone spheres whose meaning remains a mystery to this day.

There are 235 registered stone spheres in Costa Rica, all of them equal in perfection, measuring up to two meters and as small as 20 centimeters. They were created over a 1,000-year time period that began around the year 400 A.D. and lasted until the colonization of Costa Rica by the Spanish. The majority were found in the South Pacific and constituted such an important element to these societies that their production survived nearly a millennium.

The spheres were associated with pre-Columbian populations and regions where plazas, passing zones and open terrain were present. They constituted an art form that was meant to be seen, perhaps to differentiate the towns in which they were made from their neighbors. The spheres were often aligned with each other, forming lines, triangles or rectangles with an unknown meaning.

These indigenous groups also became recognized for their metal and ceramic work, and Costa Rica’s South Pacific was, in fact, the principal locale for pre-Columbian objects.

The Biggest Rainforest in Costa Rica
La Amistad International Park (PILA) is not only the largest natural park in Costa Rica with almost 200,000 hectares, but also the only bi-national park, created by the governments of Costa Rica and Panama in 1982. It could explain the name La Amistad, which means friendship in Spanish. The total extension of this amazing portion of protected land in both countries is nearly 400,000 hectares, which covers a great variety of humid, rain and cloud forests in the Pacific and Atlantic sides, as well as indigenous towns.

The Talamanca region, a big portion of the park, was a refuge in colonial times for indigenous people who resisted the Spanish colonization. The isolation of the region, thanks to the difficult geographical conditions, allowed its inhabitants to safeguard most of their traditional ways of life and attire.

The enormous cultural richness and extraordinary natural habitats, result of different altitudes, soil and microclimates, was the reason why the park was also designed a Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site.

Species in great danger of extinction such as the jaguar, the largest feline in the Americas and third largest world-wide, live in the park as well as a great variety of wildlife, which includes 400 species of birds, 263 species of amphibians and reptiles and 213 of mammals. Many other species are found only in this giant rainforest.

A Paradise for Divers
With a marine surface that is ten times bigger than the terrestrial and an immense biodiversity, Costa Rica is the perfect place for diving fanatics. The majority of these places belong to wildlife protected areas around the country, such as the famous Cocos Island National Park, which is also a World Heritage site. Costa Rica´s Pacific coast is considered by Rodale´s Scuba Magazine as one of the top five destinations in the world for advanced scuba diving.

Located 532 kilometers off the Pacific coast, Cocos Island was historically a refuge for pirates, merchants, whalers and even colonizers. Today, its natural treasures include hammerhead sharks, humpback whales, bottle nose dolphins, hawksbill turtles and a variety of coral species. The famous oceanographer Jacques Cousteau deemed Cocos Island “the most beautiful island in the world.”

But the Caribbean coast has its own wonders too. For example, the Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge is unique because of the amazing species found there. In only five square kilometers of coral reef, scientists have discovered 600 species of mollusks, 10 percent of which are unique in the world. In general, the Costa Rican oceans shelter at least 6,777 species, representing 3.5 percent of known species in the planet and also making the country a must-visit destination for diving enthusiasts.

An Old Survival Ritual
Marine turtles have inhabited the Earth for over 100 million years, surviving extreme climatic changes. Costa Rica is home to some of the most important turtle nesting beaches in the world, where it is still possible to witness this old survival ritual.

On the Pacific as well as the Atlantic coast, hundreds of female sea turtles representing five different species of the world´s seven species of these reptiles, arrive on Costa Rican beaches to carry out their tireless mission to guarantee their survival. For example, Ostional Beach, on the Northern Pacific coast, is considered the main nesting site for the olive ridley turtle, which is famous for its large mass arrivals.

The giant leatherback turtle cannot go unnoticed, even though it is in great danger of extinction due to man-made causes. It is not only the largest sea turtle on the planet, measuring up to 1.8 m and weighing up to 400 kg, but also the furthest traveling reptile. Their journey takes them from their feeding sites back to the beach where they hatched in order to lay their eggs. In some cases, these giant turtles travel between continents. Other sea turtles that can be seen in the country are the green, hawksbill and loggerhead.

Guayabo: A glance of Costa Rica’s indigenous past
In 2009, the most important archeological site in Costa Rica, the Guayabo National Monument, located in the outskirts of Turrialba Volcano, was declared a World Engineering Heritage Site by the American Association of Civil Engineers (ASCE). Guayabo is the third archaeological site in Latin America to receive this distinction after Machu Picchu and Tipon in Peru.

One of the reasons is its over 700-year old aqueduct, still functional today, as is its “calzada”, a stone walkway used as a transit route and part of the drainage system. The calzada leads towards a ceremonial center, where it is possible to observe several mounds which at one time served as supports for the famous conical roofed straw and reed structures of South American influence. Stone was commonly used in Guayabo to build a system of sidewalks and walls that helped prevent erosion and landslides. There are also stone tombs decorated with pebbles, flagstones and engravings or petroglyphs.

Guayabo was constructed between 300 B.C. and 1400 A.D. and was populated by indigenous groups of the Intermediate Cultural Area, which extended from Alajuela, in Costa Rica, all the way to Colombia, Venezuela and part of Ecuador. Despite the fact that Guayabo was no longer populated when the Spaniards arrived and the causes of its depopulation are still a mystery, the site was for centuries undoubtedly a highly developed cultural and political-religious center, whose importance was heightened precisely because of its rich resources and the presence of the Turrialba Volcano.

A Perfect Whale’s tail
The Uvita tombolo or sandy bridge that connects the mainland with a rocky islet, near Dominical Beach, in the Southern Pacific of Costa Rica, looks like a perfect whale´s tail in low tide. But more interesting is the fact that the place and surroundings are one of the best spots to watch humpback whales coming from North and South America.

These warm waters are just what these whales are looking for when the winter time arrives. Northern humpbacks are normally seen from December to April and southern humpbacks from July to October.

The spectacle is amazing, taking into account that they can measure up to 16 meters in length and weigh up to 40 tons. The name is due to a small hump in front of their dorsal fin that can be very noticeable when they double over to dive into the water.

The Canopy Tour – Originally from Costa Rica
Born in Costa Rica in the 90s, the canopy tour is the closest anyone will come to feeling like a monkey travelling through the tree tops. It is also one of the best ways to explore the richness of the canopy, where the biggest amount of the forest´s biodiversity is found and to raise awareness about the rainforest’s fragile ecosystem.

It consists of a series of suspended cables attached from tree to tree on which one glides along using a pulley that is secured to alpinism equipment (the harness). Cables vary in length (they can measure even 700 meters long!) and end in small wooden platforms built in the tops of trees, which are located up to 100 feet above the jungle floor. The impact to the forest is minimal. This explains why biologists were the first ones who, more than three decades ago, started using this technology for research.

The canopy tour has been adapted to a great variety of environments and landscapes within the country, including mountains, canyons, rivers, waterfalls and cloud, dry and tropical forests. The tour has also been exported to other Latin.

Costa Rica: A favourite country for surfing
It seems like every surfer who visits the country agrees that Costa Rica is one of the best places in the world to surf; it’s no accident Costa Rica is the third most popular destination for this sport after Hawaii and Indonesia. The reasons are simple: beaches with excellent year-round waves, pleasant weather, warm water, friendly people and reasonable prices.

In 2009, Billabong World Surfing Games took place in Costa Rica, with 35 countries participating. To host the games, Costa Rica beat out renowned surf destinations like Brazil and South Africa. Consider: Costa Rica has two great oceans within a 6-hour drive of each other. This makes it possible to surf the Pacific in the morning and the Atlantic in the afternoon.

Natural Touch
Costa Rica offers highly acclaimed, holistic spas famed for organic treatments and products. There is no guarantee that the fountain of youth is here, but then again, one never knows.

Conquering and Enjoying the force of water
Every adventurer and nature lover should take the opportunity to experience white water rafting in Costa Rica. The reason is simple: world-class rapids and a stunning tropical landscape.

Rafters from ages 12 and up can choose between class II rapids for beginners up to class IV for the more experienced thrill-seekers.

The gentler Sarapiqui or Corobici rivers are ideal for newcomers. Other rivers, like the Reventazon, have sections for both beginners and amazing white water for the more experienced.

The Pacuare River offers a long and spectacular experience, including a two-day trip where rafters camp, swim, and explore waterfalls while toucans, sloths and howler monkeys give a warm welcome.

A bird that cannot go unnoticed
Its plumage is mostly scarlet but its tail feathers are light blue, making the Scarlet Macaw one of the most beautiful birds of the American tropics. In fact, at almost one meter in length, more than half constituted by its pointed striking tail, this bird cannot go unnoticed, especially because they are often seen in pairs. A number of couples may even congregate with others to form a flock of several hundred individuals, a spectacle that is impossible to forget when they fly above the forest canopy.

This is possible because the Scarlet Macaw lives in lowland rainforests, open woodlands, river edges and savannas of Central and South America. Its range extends from Mexico to the Amazon basin.

One interesting thing about Macaws is that they are not only monogamous but also form only one couple in their entire life, meaning that if any of the two dies, the other remains alone, which could be a very long time, taking into account that these birds can live as long as 50 years or more.

Another curious thing is the use of beaks as an aid in both eating and as a “third foot” when climbing. The beak is strong to crush seeds and nuts, while the thick fleshy tongue is used to move the food around. Breeding takes place during the first half of the year and the nest is usually in a hole at the top of a tall dead tree previously made and used by a woodpecker. Despite the fact that the young are born featherless, at six months it is hard to distinguish the young from the parents.

A Volcano almost in the capital
Historically, the most active of all Costa Rica volcanoes, Irazu, is also the biggest neighbor of Costa Rica´s capital city. Located, in fact, 30 kilometers from San Jose, this colossal giant reaches 3,432 meters above sea level and thanks to its height, on a clear day, both the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans are visible from its peak.

Irazu volcano has been a national park since 1955. Its name comes from the indigenous word “Istaru,” meaning “mountain of tremors and fire.” Despite of being the volcano with highest altitude in the country, its summit can be reached easily by car, making this five crater volcano very accessible to all visitors.

Situated in the main crater of the volcano, there is a stunning, sulfurous, turquoise-green lagoon measuring more than a kilometer in diameter and some 300 meters in depth. It has an average temperature of 35 degrees Celsius and reaches 70 degrees in areas closest to its fumaroles. The summit is crowned by an interesting Andean-like vegetation consisting of small shrubbery and its ample, semi-desert like landscape that in some way resembles the moon’s surface.

The journey to Irazu also includes a peaceful trip across fertile agriculture lands and beautiful landscapes of the region´s unique small-sized vegetation. The first recorded eruption of this volcano occurred in 1732 and its last active period ended in 1963. It seems to be asleep now, but who knows for how long…

The secret to longevity is hidden in Costa Rica
The elderly of the Nicoya Peninsula in Southern Guanacaste, many of whom are in their 90s, are among the most long-lived people in the world. This phenomenon was measured for the first time in a 2004 demographic study, which found that those in their 90s in this region have a 10 percent lower mortality rate than the rest of the country.

With an area of more than 2,500 square miles and a population of just 132,000, over 5,000 of its inhabitants are over the age of 75. The study also found that Costa Rican males have a longer life expectancy on average than their counterparts the world over. This means that a Costa Rican man who reaches his 80th birthday will, on average, live 8.2 years longer than if he resided in Japan, the U.S. or Iceland. If he reaches 90, he will, on average, outlive his counterparts in those countries by 4.4 years.

The phenomenon of longevity drew the attention of writer Dan Buettner, founder of Bluezones.com. His mission is to identify what he terms “blue zones,” or areas of greater longevity around the globe; not only areas where people live longer, but also where they seem to enjoy better health than those who live in surrounding areas.

He and his team, with the support of the National Geographic Society and Allianz Life, corroborated in 2007 the accuracy of the data in Costa Rica, but also identified a blue zone in the Nicoya Peninsula where the residents likewise live longer on average than those in the rest of the country. Other blue zones internationally include Sardinia (Italy), Okinawa (Japan), and the valley of Loma Linda, California (USA).

According to scientists, genetic factors play only a 25 percent role in determining how long we live. The rest is determined by our lifestyle and daily habits. One thing that means is that even though you don’t live in Nicoya, you can still apply some of the research findings to increase your longevity. Besides specific factors in the region such as water rich in calcium that strengthens bones and a diet rich in fruits and hominy (nixtamal) with their antioxidants, niacin, and amino acids, there are other secrets one can adopt which have to do with how these people approach life.

Living in extended families, having faith and engaging in physical labor that keeps them in shape are three more pieces of the longevity puzzle of the Nicoyans, factors that also help them to live a life that has direction, meaning and connection to others. Such a lifestyle brings about happiness, which in turn raises endorphin levels and strengthens the immune system.

Apparently the people of Nicoya are not only concerned with their own lives, but see themselves as connected to others and stay active and seek to learn new things throughout their life span. And so they get to add a new candle each year to the cake.

The most amazing journey across the Americas
It is thought that they have biological clocks and are good geographers because many recognize rivers, mountains and cities; some even say that they are great astronomers because they guide themselves by means of the sun, the stars and even the Earth’s magnetic field; others recognize chemical odors and marine currents.

What is certain is that every year, millions of migratory species, whether by water, land or air, travel enormous distances over the American continent, some of them arrive in Costa Rica, in search of better climatic conditions, more abundant food or a suitable site for reproduction, which generally coincides with the warmer season. These odysseys are not exempt from great challenges; some species travel up to 20,000 miles round-trip.

This happens with species of whales, bats, birds, fish, sea turtles and even insects like the monarch butterfly. Most flee the North American winter to seek food in the southern part of the continent, and then return to their feeding grounds in the north when their favorite foods sprout anew in the spring.

Very small species like ruby-throated hummingbirds (Archilochus colubris), which measure only 10 cm, fly non-stop for 26 hours from Canada and the United States to Central America at a velocity of 28 mph for a voyage of 652 miles that even includes crossing the Gulf of Mexico. And if the blackpoll warbler (Dendroica striata), only 13 cm long, were to burn gasoline instead of body fat, it would get 715,852 miles per gallon.

But the most extensive individual migration known for a mammal was that of a humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), initially spotted off the Antarctic Peninsula and then seen off the Santa Elena Peninsula of Costa Rica, for a total trip of 7,130 miles.

In the Americas, from the Arctic to Antarctica, migratory species are vital ecological and economic resources, shared by the nations and inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere. They are sources of food, means of livelihood and recreation, and they have important biological, cultural and economic values for society.

Precolonial period
The ancient Maya were one of the most highly developed peoples of precolonial America, boasting a sophisticated calendar, astronomic observatories, and construction skills. During the Classic Period dating from 300 to 900 CE, the Maya built the majority of their cities. The causes of the sudden abandonment of many Mayan cities starting about 850 CE are still being debated, but a combination of soil exhaustion, climate change, and armed conflict may have contributed to the cities’ decline. When Spanish conquerors arrived in the 16th century, they found many cities in ruins and encountered little organized resistance. Still, isolated bands of Maya-speaking peoples avoided Spanish control for many years in the colonial period.

The colonial period
Under the Spanish, a capital was reestablished at the nearby location of present-day Antigua Guatemala. The capital achieved a certain magnificence, and the other major towns acquired some aspects of Spanish culture, but the outlying areas were only lightly affected. When the capital was razed by a series of earthquakes in 1773, it was moved by royal order to the present site of Guatemala City.

Compared with colonial Mexico or Peru, both of which had large deposits of precious metals, colonial Guatemala developed no great degree of economic prosperity. The cultivation for export of agricultural staples, principally cacao (the source of cocoa beans) and indigo, by Indian or African slave labour was the major economic activity, exclusive of production for subsistence. Toward the end of the colonial period, the production of cochineal, a red dye derived from the bodies of insects, competed with the other agricultural exports. Industrial products from England, despite the efforts of Spanish authorities to exclude them, came to Guatemala via the Caribbean and Belize. Commerce, however, was never extensive; a satisfactory port was never developed, internal transportation was difficult, and pirates harassed the coasts and preyed on shipping. The importance of Guatemala City lay in the fact that it was the administrative and religious centre of the entire region between Mexico and Panama, being the headquarters of the captain general, the high court (Audiencia), and the archbishop. The modern states of El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Chiapas, Mexico, were provinces under Guatemala’s jurisdiction in colonial times.

The postcolonial period
Following independence from Spain (1821) and Mexico (1823), Guatemala was the political centre of the United Provinces of Central America. The principal factor in the collapse of the federation was the backcountry uprising in Guatemala led by Rafael Carrera, who established himself as the military arbiter of the state (1838) and, from the executive’s chair or from behind it, controlled policy until his death in 1865. Elections were dispensed with in 1854, when the presidency was conferred upon him for life.

Carrera, who enjoyed support from Indians as well as from conservative estate owners, returned Guatemala to a regime similar to that of the colonial period. He restored the church to its position of privilege and power and catered to the aristocracy. Carrera followed a nationalistic policy, and in March 1847 he formally declared Guatemala an independent and sovereign nation. In 1859 he failed to get Britain to follow through on a treaty defining the status and boundaries of British Honduras, an issue that remained unsettled even after British Honduras became independent as Belize.

In 1871 a revolution headed by Miguel García Granados and Justo Rufino Barrios overthrew Gen. Vicente Cerna, Carrera’s conservative successor in office, and inaugurated a period of liberal ascendancy that extended almost unbroken to 1944. After a brief period in the presidency, García Granados ceded to Barrios (1873), who became known as the Reformer because of the sweeping changes he introduced.

With the approval of the assembly, Barrios broke the power of the local aristocracy; brought the church under civil control and confiscated its properties; instituted lay education; promulgated a new constitution (1876); fostered the construction of roads, railways, and telegraph lines; encouraged development by private initiative of Guatemala’s resources; and opened the country to foreign capital. His government promoted the cultivation of coffee to replace the dye products, which were now being produced artificially in Europe, and enacted legislation that assured producers of a ready supply of labour. By the end of his administration, coffee was the number one export of Guatemala. Barrios also took steps to professionalize the Guatemala military. He was an ardent exponent of a Central American union, and, when political means failed to produce results, he invaded El Salvador in order to force it to join the union. However, he was killed at the Battle of Chalchuapa (1885), and the movement collapsed.

After the death of Barrios, Manuel Lisandro Barillas occupied the presidency. He was succeeded by José María Reina Barrios, a nephew of “the Reformer,” who was elected in 1892 and assassinated in 1898. Manuel Estrada Cabrera then became provisional president, regularized his status by an election, and by repeated reelections maintained himself in power until leaders of the opposition Unionist Party forced him from office by having the assembly declare him insane (1920). During his long tenure, Estrada Cabrera fostered economic development and progress along the lines established by Barrios. He encouraged improvements in agriculture, made concessions to the United Fruit Company (owned by U.S. businessmen), continued to build roads, and supported railroad construction, seeing completion of the railroad to the Atlantic. Health conditions were improved, and education was stimulated. Estrada Cabrera persecuted political opponents, disregarded individual rights, muzzled the press, and summarily disposed of his enemies.

After the fall of Estrada Cabrera, the presidency was held by a series of short-term rulers who continued to rule in behalf of the coffee elite. Following a military coup in 1931, Gen. Jorge Ubico was elected president without opposition and began the fourth of Guatemala’s extended dictatorships.

Guatemala from 1931 to 1954
Ubico stressed economic development and, in particular, the improvement and diversification of agriculture and the construction of roads. He balanced the national budget and transformed a deficit into a surplus. His paternalistic policies toward the Indians established him as their patron, although his vagrancy law (1934) made workers, especially Indians, liable to periods of forced labour at critical seasons. During his motorcycle tours of the country or in his office, he listened to their complaints and dispensed immediate “justice.” This relationship deluded Ubico (called Tata, “Father”) into stating that Guatemala no longer had an Indian problem.

Ubico’s administration dramatized the degree to which liberal thought had lost its idealism and was concerned principally with material progress. The new socioeconomic groups found no stimulation and no hope in the dreary materialism and military repression that had come to characterize liberal regimes, and these potential sources of opposition were brought together by the increasing disregard shown for individual rights and liberties. The discontent was increased by economic dislocation during World War II. In December 1941, with pressure and promises of economic aid from the United States, Ubico’s government declared war on Japan, Germany, and Italy.

In June 1944 a general strike forced Ubico to resign, leaving the government in the hands of a military junta which favoured change. Labour was allowed to organize, political parties were formed, and a presidential electoral campaign was begun, in which Juan José Arévalo soon emerged as the most popular candidate. Gen. Federico Ponce Vaides, head of the interim government, was deposed on October 20, 1944, by a popular uprising, and a revolutionary junta presided over the drafting of a new constitution and the electoral campaign, which was won by Arévalo. The Arévalo administration attempted to consolidate the social revolution implicit in the October uprising. A favourable labour code was enacted, and a social security system that promised progressive extension of benefits was inaugurated. Following the example of Mexico and its Indigenista (Indigenismo) movement, Arévalo took additional steps to support Guatemalan Indians, which included encouraging indigenous leaders to organize in campesino leagues to defend their interests. Arévalo also pressed the Belize border issue with Britain, subjected foreign enterprises to regulation, and attempted to guarantee Guatemalan labourers larger benefits. Thus, the Arévalo regime transferred political power from the military to a popular group, of which organized labour was the most important element.

Lack of leadership from the rank and file allowed Guatemalan communists to organize the labour movement and use it for their own ends. Arévalo was not friendly to their activities, but his nationalistic bent gave them opportunity to establish themselves as his most enthusiastic and reliable supporters.

Jacobo Arbenz, a military officer who received communist support, was elected to succeed Arévalo and assumed office in March 1951. Arbenz made agrarian reform the central project of his administration, signaling a turn to the political left. The National Congress passed a measure providing for the expropriation of unused portions of landholdings in excess of a specified acreage and for the distribution of the land among landless peasants.

The land reform, which had a heavy impact upon the U.S.-owned United Fruit Company, and the growth of communist influence became the most troublesome issues of the Arbenz regime. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began efforts to destabilize the regime and recruited a force of Guatemalan exiles in Honduras, which was led by the exiled Col. Carlos Castillo Armas. When the invasion began in June 1954, Arbenz was forced to resign.

Civil war years
Castillo Armas emerged from the resulting military junta as provisional president, and a plebiscite made his status official. He extirpated communist influence, quashed agrarian reform, and broke labour and peasant unions with considerable violence, but he himself was brought down by an assassin’s bullet in July 1957. For the next nine years military men ruled with scant respect for the Congress or elections. During these regimes, the thwarting of social reforms promised by the revolution of 1944 made restive elements of the population increasingly receptive to guerrilla resistance. Fidel Castro’s victory over a military government in Cuba in 1959 also inspired the Guatemalan rebels, leading to a vicious cycle of violence and repression particularly in the countryside that would last for the next 36 years.

Ethnic groups
On the basis of cultural traits, the population is divided into two main ethnic groups—Ladinos and Maya, who make up the vast majority of Indians in Guatemala and form several cultures. The Ladinos (mestizos) comprise those of mixed Hispanic-Maya origin and make up between one-half and three-fifths of the total population, whereas the Maya account for some two-fifths of the country’s population. There are much smaller numbers of Spanish-speaking Xinca in southern Guatemala and Garífuna (people of mixed African and Caribbean descent; formerly called Black Caribs) in the northeastern port towns of Livingston and Puerto Barrios. Their ancestors immigrated to the Central American coast from Caribbean islands in the 18th century. Ladinos, who speak Spanish exclusively, are the more commercially and politically influential group, and they make up most of the urban population.

Languages
Although all official transactions in Guatemala are conducted in Spanish, many documents—such as those related to the peace agreement of December 1996 that ended more than three decades of civil war in Guatemala—are translated into more than 20 Mayan languages. The largest Maya groups are the Mam, who reside in the western regions of Guatemala; the K’iche’, who occupy areas to the north and west of Lake Atitlán; the Kaqchikel, who extend from the eastern shores of Lake Atitlán to Guatemala City; and the Q’eqchi’, who are concentrated in the sierras to the north and west of Lake Izabal. Although many Maya are bilingual in Spanish, there has been a strong commitment since the late 20th century to assert Maya ethnic identity and to promote the various Maya languages for both daily use and literature.

Religion
While Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion of Guatemalans, among the Maya it is often heavily infused with beliefs of pre-Columbian origin. From the mid-20th century, however, there has been a surge of conversions to Evangelical Protestantism (which offers strong encouragement of self-improvement), particularly among the poor. Protestants account for about two-fifths of the population, one of the highest proportions in Latin America. The most important Roman Catholic shrine in Central America is the Black Christ of Esquipulas (1595), located in eastern Guatemala and carved by Quirio Cataño of Antigua Guatemala.

Cultural milieu
Guatemalan society is marked by pronounced extremes in the conduct of daily life. In Guatemala City, elite families live much as they do in the cosmopolitan centres of developed countries, communicating by e-mail, cell phones, and beepers. On the other hand, within an hour’s drive of the capital are indigenous people whose patterns of daily life reflect those of past centuries and whose communities continue to be knit together by market life. Sharp contrasts like these pervade Guatemalan culture, whether it be in the language spoken or in matters pertaining to the household, cuisine, attire, or family affairs.

Daily life and social customs
Guatemalans are increasingly exposed to the intrusion of foreign influences upon their way of life. All aspects of communication—periodical news, the comics, soap operas, film—are primarily of foreign origin. A multitude of products, from soaps and boxed cereals and bottled drinks to automobiles, bear foreign brand names. Nevertheless, in local Mayan villages, colourful native attire is still common and varies according to the village and language group.

Heavily attended fairs and religious festivals are scheduled in every part of Guatemala throughout the year. Semana Santa (Holy Week), at Easter, is marked by festivals throughout the country, but many Guatemalans travel to Antigua Guatemala to attend services at its great Baroque cathedral. Guatemala’s national day of independence from Spain, September 15, is also celebrated across the country with fireworks, dances, parades, football (soccer) matches, and cockfights. At these festivals, indigenous crafts are sold, including the embroidered huipils (smocks) worn by Maya women. Guatemalans celebrate All Saints’ Day on November 1 with unique traditions: giant kites are flown in the cemeteries near Antigua Guatemala, and many Guatemalans feast on a traditional food known as fiambre, a salad made from cold cuts, fish, and vegetables. The town of Todos Santos Cuchumatán holds horse races and traditional dancing on this day. Guatemala City celebrates the Feast of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary on August 15. Weekly market days in Indian villages are important social gatherings; one of the best known is the market in Chichicastenango.

The basic food of the Maya consisted of corn, beans, squash, and, depending on the region, cassava (manioc), papaya, and plantains. Fishing and hunting also added to their diet. The beans of the cacao plant provided a cocoa drink that was primarily limited to the nobility. Modern-day Guatemalan cuisine is a mixture of Spanish and local dishes. These include appetizers such as tamales de elote (corn cakes) and turkey soup; drinks made with rum, lime juice, and sugarcane and horchata (cold milk mixed with rice, cocoa, and cinnamon); and entrées such as chiles rellenos (stuffed peppers), rellenitos de plátano (mashed plantain with black beans), salpicón (chopped beef salad with cilantro and onions), arroz con pollo (rice with chicken), and Mayan chicken fricassee (chicken cooked in a pumpkin and sesame seed sauce with chopped almonds). Desserts include pompan (candied sweet papaya) and flan.

The arts
The evidence of Maya culture pervades the country. Today, although native crafts involve a variety of forms of expression, they are best represented in colourful handwoven textiles and costumes, unique to each community. Traditional dances, music, and religious rites that have survived in the more rural regions are important tourist attractions. The art of the colonial period is chiefly represented in the architecture and decor of Roman Catholic churches.

For the most part, the recognition of modern painters, composers, and authors tends to be limited. A major exception is the writer Miguel Ángel Asturias (1899–1974), a poet and novelist who won the Lenin Peace Prize in 1966 and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1967. Despite his 10-year residence in Paris (1923–33), his work is strongly rooted in Guatemalan history, such as his 1946 novel El señor presidente, a powerful attack on Guatemala’s military dictatorship.

As with Asturias’s writings, expressions of the various art forms in Guatemala tend to focus on Maya heritage. From antiquity is the epic Popol Vuh, a historical chronicle of the Quiché people. Originally written in hieroglyphics, the story was translated into Spanish in the 16th century and is viewed as one of the most important documents of the pre-Columbian Americas. Indian-rights activist Rigoberta Menchú is also internationally renowned for her poetry and short fiction, but more so for her memoir I, Rigoberta Menchú, first published in 1983 and since translated into many languages. Carlos Mérida (1891–1984), a contemporary and colleague of the great Mexican muralist Diego Rivera, is the best-known Guatemalan painter. The painter and printmaker Alfred Jensen (1903–81), of Danish, Polish, and German descent, was born in Guatemala but settled in the United States in 1934.

The mainland of Honduras has long been inhabited by a variety of cultural groups. Among these are the Lenca, the Paya, and the better known Mayan. Honduras is home to one of the Mayan largest ruins. Paya Indians have been traced to Roatan. Today, the Latino (“mestizo”) is the largest cultural group. On Roatan, the Paya Indians gave way to the Garifuna through a series of British and Spanish voyages. Christopher Columbus first came to Honduras in 1502, on his final voyage.

Hernan Cortes came to Honduras in 1524 and brought with him Spanish armed forces. This brought about a period of Spanish colonization that went on for nearly 300 years. In 1821, Honduras claimed its independence from Spain and became a Republic in 1838.

Political System
The Republic of Honduras has adopted a democratic economic system based on free capitalistic trade. However, rumors of corruptions and a new wave of socialistic tendencies have surfaced. The most recent elections saw a surprising number of voters pushing for a socialistic agenda. That said, it is not the first time politicians have angled to turn the Honduran political system into socialism. So far, Hondurans have managed to promote and maintain a democratic system.

Government & Economy
Like in the US, the Honduran government has the same three governmental branches (Executive, Legislative, & Judicial) but instead of two or three political parties, Honduras has five competing political parties. Two of these parties have been in office for much the countries recent history. Elections are held every four years in Honduras. In 2017, a sitting president won re-election for the first time. This caused turmoil on the streets as many claimed the re-election was not only illegal but also unconstitutional. By contrast, many are of the opinion, that reflection is needed to enable government continuance and to keep the more socialistic party out of public office.

The Honduran economy is mainly dependent on Agriculture, farming, textile productions, and tourism. Crops include coffee, sugar, and bananas. During the 1990’s, the manufacturing industry grew exponentially. Textile factories grew in numbers primarily in the areas around San Pedro Sula. Honduras is a large exporter of sweatshirts, sneakers, and other garments consumed in the US and around the world. The “Made in Honduras” has become a common tag in clothing stores around the globe.

Catrachos
The citizens of every country have a nickname. Americans are commonly referred to as “Gringos.” Hondurans are commonly referred to as “Catrachos.” The name comes from General Florencio Xatruch. Those who supported the general were known as “Xatruchos” which later evolved to the more common spelling of “Catrucho” and later “Catracho.” Using the word, Catracho is seen as a compliment and not a derogatory name. Honduras is like most other countries in that soccer of “futbol” is the most popular sport and a national pass time. It is customary for locals to wear their favorite futbol jersey around as casual attire. The most common jersey is that of the Honduran national team followed by jerseys from La Liga which include Real Madrid and Barcelona teams.

Religion
Until the early 90’s, most Hondurans identified as Roman Catholic. Today, there is a fairly even divide between Catholics and those practicing a Protestant faith.

Honduras is rich in its heritage, natural beauty, and has an exiting culture. It is recommended that prospective Expats get a deeper understanding of Honduras ahead of deciding to move to Roatan. Life on Roatan is much different than life on the mainland of Honduras. But Honduras authority is still the law of the land. We hope you enjoy this brief overview of Honduras.

An estimated 90% of Hondurans are mestizo. This group is a mix of European and American Indians. Hondurans speak Spanish as their first language. Spanish, Miskito, Garifuna, and the Bay Island Creole English are official languages to Honduras. But Spanish is by in large most commonly spoken of the languages. Street signs, official documents, and the press is all written in Spanish.

Pre-Columbian Mexico
It is assumed that the first inhabitants of Middle America were early American Indians, of Asian derivation, who migrated into the area at some time during the final stage of the Pleistocene Epoch. The date of their arrival in central Mexico remains speculative. The assertions of some archaeologists and linguists that early humans resided in Mexico some 30,000 to 40,000 years ago, before developing technology for big-game hunting, are rejected by most scholars. More generally accepted claims for early settlers in Mexico pertain to a somewhat later period and to hunters of large herd animals such as the mammoth. Human artifacts and mammoth bones dated to approximately 9000 BC have been found together in the same geologic strata in the Valley of Mexico at Santa Isabel Ixtapan.

With the increased dryness and change of fauna following the glacial retreat of the last Wisconsin substage (approximately 7500 BC), the inhabitants of Middle America were forced to turn from big-game hunting to other means of subsistence, such as the hunting of small game and the collecting of wild food plants. This mode of existence is best seen in the archaeological discoveries made in the Tehuacán Valley of Puebla.

In the earlier El Riego (7000–5000 BC) and Coxcatlán (5000–3400 BC) phases of this sequence, the inhabitants of the Tehuacán Valley were probably seasonal nomads who divided their time between small hunting encampments and larger temporary villages, which were used as bases for collecting plants such as various grasses and maguey and cactus fruits. Corn (maize; Zea mays), a wild grass, first came under cultivation at this time, probably as early as 5000 BC, and over the centuries farmers learned to produce hybrids to increase the size of the corn kernels. Avocados, chili peppers, amaranth, zapotes, tepary beans, and squashes were also primitive cultigens. During the Abejas phase (3400–2300 BC), use of cultivated plants increased at the expense of wild plants and, probably, at the expense of hunting. In addition, pumpkins and the common bean were introduced. Toward the end of the phase, more-permanent settlements seem to have developed as pit-house villages. Pottery was being produced as early as the Purron phase (2300–1500 BC).

Early, Middle, and Late Formative periods
By 2000 BC some village communities in Middle America were sustained largely or wholly by agriculture. Most of these villages were located in southern Mesoamerica, but archaeological finds in Cerro Juanaquena, Chihuahua, not far from the present-day U.S. border, suggest early agricultural development in northern Mexico as well. During the Early Formative Period numerous edible plants were improved by hybridization and more-sophisticated cultivation techniques.

The Middle Formative Period was a time of transition from simple agricultural village to more-complex societies organized around politico-religious capitals, possibly including densely populated towns. Although these and other societies must have built numerous structures of wood, reeds, and thatch—materials widely available in the surrounding forests—these have long since rotted away under the tropical sun. As a result, archaeologists have tended to focus on stone and earth-filled structures that have withstood the ravages of time. The first large stone-built ceremonial centres and the first monumental stone sculpture date from the Middle Formative Period, about 1000 BC in southern Veracruz and Tabasco. The sites in question are San Lorenzo and La Venta, both of which evolved from small farming villages to impressive urban centres. They are the two prime sites of Olmec art, which exhibited consummate control of both full round and bas-relief forms. The Olmec artists made great stone heads, altars, large mosaic masks, and stelae, and they also worked as lapidaries in exquisite jade figurines and other small objects. They often depicted human faces, although many of these had jaguar mouths and nostrils. Olmec stylistic influence reached to Oaxaca, Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, and the Valley of Mexico.

The Late Formative Period saw the spread of complex societies throughout much of Middle America. Hieroglyphics and complex calendrical calculations appeared. These elements of civilization are first noted in association with the Tres Zapotes, Izapan, and early Oaxacan art styles. The true city or urban centre also came into being during this period. One of the earliest manifestations of densely settled city life occurred in the Valley of Mexico at Teotihuacán, which eventually covered an area of some 8 square miles (20 square km) and housed between 125,000 and 200,000 residents. The monumental ruins of the city, including the enormous Pyramid of the Sun and the 130-foot- (40-metre-) wide Avenue of the Dead, remain a focus of archaeological study and a major tourist draw.

Mexico’s population is composed of many ethnic groups, including indigenous American Indians (Amerindians), who account for less than one-tenth of the total. Generally speaking, the mixture of indigenous and European peoples has produced the largest segment of the population today—mestizos, who account for about three-fifths of the total—via a complex blending of ethnic traditions and perceived ancestry. Mexicans of European heritage (“whites”) are a significant component of the other ethnic groups who constitute the remainder of the population. Although myths of “racial biology” have been discredited by social scientists, “racial identity” remains a powerful social construct in Mexico, as in the United States and elsewhere, and many Mexicans have referred to their heritage and raza (“race”) with a measure of pride—particularly on October 12, the Día de la Raza (“Race Day”)—whether they conceive of themselves as indigenous, mestizo, or European. Their identities as members of ethnic groups may be additionally complicated, given that ethnicity is a function of cultural patterns and traditions as varied as a group’s sense of linguistic, religious, and socioeconomic history.

At the time Europeans arrived in the early 1500s, what is now Mexico was inhabited by peoples who are thought to have migrated into the Americas from Asia tens of thousands of years ago by crossing a former land bridge in the Bering Strait. After their arrival in Mexico, many groups developed unique cultural traits. Highly organized civilizations occupied various parts of Mexico for at least 2,000 years before European contact.

By the early 16th century most people lived in the Mesa Central under the general rule of the Aztec empire, but many separate cultural groups also thrived in this region, among them speakers of the Tarascan, Otomí, and Nahuatl languages. Outside the Mesa Central were numerous other cultural groups, such as the Maya of the Yucatán and the Mixtec and Zapotec of Oaxaca. The splendid Aztec cities of the Mesa Central were marvels of architectural design, irrigation technology, and social organization. Spectacular Mayan ruins in the Yucatán give evidence of widespread urbanization and intensive agricultural productivity dating back more than 2,000 years. In many ways the indigenous civilizations of Mexico were more advanced than that of their Spanish conquerors.

Following the arrival of Europeans, intermarriage resulted in an increasing mestizo population that over the centuries became the dominant ethnic group in Mexico. Northern Mexico is overwhelmingly mestizo in both urban and rural areas. Mexicans of European descent, including those who immigrated during the 20th century, are largely concentrated in urban areas, especially Mexico City, and in the West. As is the case throughout Latin America, people of European descent and other lighter-skinned Mexicans dominate the wealthiest echelons of Mexican society, owing to racial discrimination and centuries of economic, political, and social policies favouring the inheritance of wealth. In contrast, mestizos occupy a wide range of social and economic positions, while indigenous Indians are predominantly poor and working-class, often industrial and service workers in cities and peasants in the countryside. Notwithstanding such generalizations, some individuals manage to improve their lot through education, political action, or entrepreneurship.

There are several areas where indigenous peoples are still the dominant population group. Maya speakers constitute the majority in the rural Yucatán and the Chiapas Highlands. In the Oaxaca Valley and in remoter parts of the Sierra Madre del Sur, indigenous (primarily Zapotec) communities abound. Despite their decreasing numbers, enclaves of American Indians also are still significant in isolated mountain areas on the eastern margin of the Mesa Central.

Languages
Spanish, which is the official national language and the language of instruction in schools, is spoken by the vast majority of the population. Fewer than one-tenth of American Indians speak an indigenous language. There are, however, more than 50 indigenous languages spoken by more than 100,000 people, including Maya in the Yucatán; Huastec in northern Veracruz; Nahua, Tarascan, Totonac, Otomí, and Mazahua mainly on the Mesa Central; Zapotec, Mixtec, and Mazatec in Oaxaca; and Tzeltal and Tzotzil in Chiapas. Many public and private schools offer instruction in English as a second language.

Religion
There is no official religion in Mexico, as the constitution guarantees separation of church and state. However, more than four-fifths of the population are at least nominally affiliated with Roman Catholicism. The Basilica of Guadalupe, the shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe, Mexico’s patron saint, is located in Mexico City and is the site of annual pilgrimage for hundreds of thousands of people, many of them peasants. Throughout Mexico are thousands of Catholic churches, convents, pilgrimage sites, and shrines.

Cultural milieu
Mexican society is ethnically and regionally diverse, and there are sharp socioeconomic divisions within the population. Many rural communities maintain strong allegiances to regions, often referred to as patrias chicas (“small homelands”), which help to perpetuate cultural diversity. The large number of indigenous languages and customs, especially in the south, also accentuates cultural differences. However, indigenismo, or pride in the indigenous heritage, has been a major unifying theme of the country since the 1930s. In attempts to unite the country culturally by identifying a uniquely Mexican culture, the government has sometimes supported indigenous folk arts and crafts as well as the European-inspired classical arts.

Daily life and social customs
Daily life in Mexico varies dramatically according to socioeconomic level, gender, ethnicity and racial perceptions, regional characteristics, rural-versus-urban differences, and other social and cultural factors. A Mayan peasant in the forests of the Yucatán leads an existence utterly different from that of a successful lawyer in Toluca or a lower-middle-class worker in Monterrey. Further differences are exacerbated by the large number of Mexican expatriates in the United States who eventually return, either for short-term visits or permanently, and in turn import many “American” ways of life. Such differences give Mexico much of its character and colour, but they also present the country with stubborn challenges. But, notwithstanding the vast range of lifestyles and class-based opportunities in Mexico, some similarities are widely shared.

Nicaragua, which means, “here united with the water,” is a sovereign state whose people love freedom and independence.

The western region of the country was colonized by Spain, where the east was once a British region with a culture similar to that of the Caribbean nations. Examples through history include the fight led by the “general of the people” Augusto C. Sandino against the intervention of the United States in 1927, and the Sandinista People’s Revolution against the Somoza dictatorship, which led the way to democracy and solidarity in Nicaragua. Today the country is a democracy, with elections and a government dedicated to social justice and peace.

The merging of different cultures within Nicaragua has caused the dawn of a creative, lively and blissful culture. Nicaraguans are appreciated for their natural warmth, hospitality and wisdom. The country is known as the land of poets, and Nicaraguan poet Rubén Darío is the father of Spanish-American literary movement, Modernism. The rhythmic marimbas and folkloric dances give vibrancy to our fiestas across the country and the beautiful work of our skilled artists spreads an understanding of our history and nature.

Religion plays a momentous role within the Nicaraguan culture. Religious freedom and tolerance are promoted both by the government and the constitution, there is no separation. Religious authorities lend their guidance in key state developments and they often mediate between parties during political crisis.

Many religious celebrations take place throughout the country. These events are often loud, joyous celebrations that attract large crowds with dance, music and traditional interpretations.

Each city and town has an official Saint, also known as the ‘Santo Patrono’, which have been designated since colonial times. As well as honoring these Saints with gifts in exchange for blessings, celebrations take place called ‘Fiestas Patronales’ that can last several days and are colorful, folkloric events. The highlight of these festivals tend to be the philharmonic bands called ‘chicheros’, where trumpets, clarinets, drums and a cymbal come together come together to create an energetic melody.

Nicaragua is a country keen on their music and dance, a product of the different heritage and cultures from before. It is as if each region gave birth to a different music and dance, yet still come together to mesh perfectly creating this one cultural identity. Following is a break down of the regions:

Pacific – A mixture of the indigenous and Spanish culture resulting in a wide range of diverse music and dance with flutes and drums accompanied by dancers in Spanish garb demonstrating the duality of cultures.

Masaya – Here the cultural feature is referred to in the Latin American term ‘mestizaje’, a mixture of culture. Dances are expressed with soft movements as guitars strum lightly in the background with the national folklore instrument, the wooden marimaba, painting the picture of a dance between man and woman.

North/Central – The European heritage brought by the Spanish and German descendants is prominently displayed in this region. Dances known as the ‘polcas’ and ‘mazurcas’

Caribbean – Though the African culture plays an integral role in this region, influencing both the music and dance, the contribution of the native indigenous tribes can not be forgotten. The dance of choice is the ‘palo de mayo’, crafted in Bluefields, an energetic dance which highlights the role of the body with sensual movements.

Exploration, conquest, and settlement
In 1501 the Spaniard Rodrigo de Bastidas, in the company of Juan de la Cosa and Vasco Núñez de Balboa, was the first European to explore the Atlantic coast of the Isthmus of Panama. In 1510 Diego de Nicuesa, another Spanish explorer, established the settlement of Nombre de Dios at the mouth of the Chagres River, and to the southwest, Alonso de Ojeda founded San Sebastian de Urabá. The colony, facing fierce resistance from local Indian tribes, was moved at the instigation of Balboa. The new site was to the northeast, across the Atrato River, and was named Santa María de la Antigua del Darién. It became the first permanent settlement on the isthmus and the focus of jealous intrigues centring around Balboa.

As head of the colony, Balboa, by the use of persuasion and force, brought most of the Indians under submission. Some of them revealed to him that a large sea and a gold-rich empire existed to the south, which perhaps was that of the Inca. In September 1513, Balboa reached the sea and claimed the Pacific Ocean for his king. Returning to Santa María in January 1514, he encountered much resistance from the Indians. Five years afterward Balboa was executed for insurrection on orders of the new governor, Pedro Arias de Ávila, known as Pedrarias Dávila, “the Cruel,” who had distrusted Balboa and feared his rivalry.

In 1519 the population of Santa María moved to the new town of Panama (the first European settlement on the west coast of the hemisphere), which became the centre of commercial activity and the springboard for the conquest of Peru. The colony became an important part of Spain’s mercantile system, attaining the rank of audiencia in 1538. Nombre de Dios, which was resettled and linked to Panama town by road, was renowned for its ferias (grand markets, or trade fairs). With the final destruction of Nombre de Dios in the late 16th century by the Englishman Francis Drake, commercial activity was moved to the hamlet of Portobelo, overlooking the calm bay recorded by Christopher Columbus in 1502. Portobelo then became a centre of Spanish commerce in the New World and the site of great ferias.

Panama town and Portobelo continued to attract the attention of English raiders, however, and disastrous consequences befell both settlements. Henry Morgan destroyed Panama town in 1671, and Admiral Edward Vernon razed Portobelo in 1739. In the year of Vernon’s raid, the colony was reduced in status when Spain abolished the Audiencia of Panama and placed its territory within the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Portobelo was rebuilt in 1751, but by then the Spanish galleons had begun to use the route around Cape Horn, accelerating the city’s decline through loss of trade. In 1673 the town of Panama was rebuilt a few miles west of the old town. By 1793 it was the principal town on the isthmus, with more than one-tenth of Panama’s civilian population of 71,888.

Secession from Spain and union with Gran Colombia
As the agitation for independence grew elsewhere in Spanish America, Panama, dependent on seaborne trade and relatively isolated from mutinous colonies, did not join the insurrection. The viceroy moved his headquarters from Quito (now in Ecuador) to Panama town, which sent deputies to the Cortes (parliament) in Cádiz, Spain, during the Napoleonic Wars. When the Spanish merchants secured the revocation of the royal decree authorizing foreign trade, Panama changed sides. In the autumn of 1821 the colony seceded from Spain and joined the Gran Colombia union. For a time Panama enjoyed the right to elect its own governor, but in 1843 a new constitution returned that power to officials in Bogotá. Soon afterward Panama became a state within Colombia and, despite numerous efforts to break away, remained so for the rest of the century.

Transcontinental railroad and canal projects
In 1847 the Colombian government negotiated the building of a transcontinental railroad by investors in the United States, but political and health problems kept it from becoming operational until 1855. The Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty of 1846 had granted the United States a right-of-way through the isthmus and thus the right to intervene to protect the line and free transit across the continent. Political turmoil raged while construction was under way. Panama inaugurated and discarded 20 governors (also called presidents), while New Granada (now Colombia) elected, substituted, or deposed 7 in Bogotá.

The railroad helped the gold rushers destined for California, U.S., after 1848, but it also encouraged canal planners. Ultimately Colombia awarded the rights to build the canal to the French diplomat Ferdinand de Lesseps (who had been instrumental in building the Suez Canal in Egypt) and his Universal Interocean Canal Company; construction began in 1880. By 1889 disease, chicanery, and financial scandals in France and Bogotá ruined the corporation.

By 1892 Philippe Bunau-Varilla, a French former chief engineer of the canal works, had formed a new canal company, which acquired the assets of the defunct one. After considerable debate, the United States decided to build a canal through Panama rather than Nicaragua, and the U.S. Congress’s Spooner Act of 1902 authorized the U.S. president to buy the assets of the French company. Following up on this, Bunau-Varilla pressured Colombia to negotiate the Hay-Herrán Treaty of 1903, which would have allowed the United States to control a strip of land surrounding the projected canal. The Colombian senate, however, rejected the treaty.

Bunau-Varilla then turned to a group of Panamanian revolutionaries who were uniting in opposition to the Colombian government’s rejection of the canal treaty, its requisitions of property, and its impressment of Panamanian men during a civil war. On November 3, 1903, a revolutionary junta proclaimed Panamanian independence. Colombian forces were sent to crush the rebellion, but they were mired at Colón because the U.S.-administered railroad had strategically removed its trains from the northern terminus. U.S. naval forces also deterred reinforcements that were sent from Bogotá by land. The secessionist junta appointed Bunau-Varilla minister to Washington, D.C., with full powers to negotiate treaties. On November 18, 1903, he and U.S. Secretary of State John Hay signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. By this treaty the United States obtained, in perpetuity, the exclusive use, occupation, and control of the Canal Zone, a strip 10 miles (16 km) wide (5 miles on each side of the waterway). Formal acquisition of the lands took place on May 4, 1904. Construction of the canal resumed that summer, and it was opened on August 15, 1914.

The Republic of Panama
Early years
The new constitution authorized the United States to intervene militarily in Panama in order to quell disturbances. It also provided for a centralized government headed by a president who had the authority to appoint and dismiss provincial governors. Manuel Amador Guerrero became the first president, and universal suffrage was adopted in June 1907. As had been the case under Colombian government, traditional Liberal and Conservative parties dominated politics, but personalities and family ties proved more important than ideology in most contests. Political and economic unrest brought bloodless military interventions by the United States in 1908, 1912, 1918, and 1925.

In January 1931 the government of Florencio Harmodio Arosemena was overthrown in a bloody coup led by Arnulfo Arias Madrid, a charismatic populist unconnected to the traditional political elites. The United States acquiesced and promptly recognized as president the minister to Washington, Ricardo Alfaro, who presided over orderly elections in 1932, when Harmodio Arias Madrid (brother of Arnulfo) was the winner.

The new president persuaded the United States to relinquish its rights of intervention and of seizing lands for canal-related purposes, and the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty was thus modified in 1936 by the Hull-Alfaro Treaty. In addition, the United States increased the annuity paid for the use of the Canal Zone and agreed to build a transisthmian highway. The Arias brothers soon fell out, however, and Arnulfo began his own quest for the presidency, which he won in June 1940. He then changed the constitution to extend the length of his term.

World War II and mid-century intrigues
Before the United States became embroiled in World War II, it requested defense sites outside the Canal Zone for landing fields, roads, antiaircraft batteries, and warning stations. Arias, who openly sympathized with fascism, demanded compensation in the form of cash and the transfer to Panama of various properties. While in Havana, Cuba, on a private visit, he was removed from office by the national police (Panama had no army) in October 1941, and Ricardo Adolfo de la Guardia became president. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, Panama transferred the defense sites to the United States, and tens of thousands of U.S. troops were stationed there to guarantee the security of the canal. While the waterway was never actually attacked, Japan had planned to do so, intending to use aircraft launched from submarines; however, the war ended before this effort could be mounted.

During and after the war the United States eventually returned 98 defense sites to Panama but continued negotiations on 36 others. The Panamanian government finally agreed to lease the sites, but the Panamanian National Assembly, influenced by the threat of mob violence, rejected the proposals. The United States abandoned the additional bases in 1947.

In 1945 the National Assembly put an end to the regime of de la Guardia, sent him into exile, and selected the ambassador to Washington, Enrique A. Jiménez, as president. In the presidential elections of 1948 Domingo Díaz Arosemena was declared the winner by the National Jury of Elections, depriving Arnulfo Arias of a victory. Díaz died in office in 1949, and, under a mountain of popular protests, his two vice presidents first accepted and then refused office. This action cleared the way for a bizarre maneuver by the election jury, which declared that, after a recount, Arias had won the presidency in 1948. Politics throughout this period were dominated by Colonel José Antonio Remón Cantera, commander of the increasingly militarized police, which became known as the National Guard.

In 1951 former president de la Guardia returned from exile and began to challenge the government. In May there was a run on the Federal Trust Company savings bank, which was subsequently closed; de la Guardia protested the closing and was therefore arrested. Then on May 10 Colonel Remón turned against Arias, who was overthrown, and Vice President Alcibíades Arosemena assumed power the following day. Remón won the presidential election of 1952 but was assassinated in January 1955.

The year 1955 was also notable for the flow of capital into Panama, including a loan from the World Bank that supported work on the Inter-American Highway and on local roads. But martial law was imposed in 1958 following student riots against the regime of Ernesto de la Guardia (elected in 1956) and against the United States. There were more disturbances during the first four months of 1959, and on Independence Day men said to have been students marched into the Canal Zone to raise the Panamanian flag. The police turned them back.

Ethnic groups
In the 16th century, when the Spaniards came to the isthmus, it was occupied by Kuna (Cuna), Guaymí, Chocó, and other American Indian groups. The population soon included persons of mixed Spanish and Indian ancestry, termed mestizos. During colonial times people from Africa were brought to the isthmus as slaves, and still other mixed ethnic types developed as the Africans were incorporated into the society. During the 19th century, with the construction of the Panama City–Colón railroad, new groups arrived—North Americans (primarily from the United States), French, and Chinese. Large numbers of West Indians (mainly from British Barbados and Jamaica, as well as Martinique) came to Panama as labourers during the construction of the canal, and additional U.S. nationals, Spaniards, Italians, and Greeks also arrived.

Although they are but a small fraction of the total population, Indians are found scattered over a considerable area, often in rainforests on rough terrain. The most numerous of the Indian groups are the Guaymí, who live in the western provinces of Chiriquí, Bocas del Toro, and Veraguas. Next in numbers are the Kuna, who are found primarily in the San Blas Archipelago and on the coast nearby. The Chocó live mainly in the province of Darién. Although most are engaged largely in subsistence agriculture, fishing, and hunting, some Kuna are traders, sailors, or mechanics or work in other occupations. Many Guaymí work on the banana plantations of western Panama.

Mestizos are the largest population group in Panama. They predominate in the savannas to the west of the canal and in the central provinces of Panamá and Colón, where they have intermarried with people of West Indian and African ancestry.

People of African descent are settled throughout much of Panama—for example, in the hot lowlands of the Chagres River basin, in the eastern province of Darién, and in the Caribbean lowlands. Peoples from the British West Indies are more recent arrivals and make up only a small minority. They live primarily in Panama City and in Bocas del Toro province.

The United States has influenced both the economy and the culture of Panama. U.S. citizens live primarily in the canal area and in Panama City. Other significant minorities in Panama are Chinese, East Indians, and Middle Easterners, all of whom play an important role in commerce and industry and who participate in the country’s political and professional life. There is a sizable Jewish community, founded when Spanish and Portuguese Jews fleeing the Inquisition began to settle in Panama. They initially were forced to practice their religion in secret. The population was increased by Jewish immigrants from the West Indies (notably from Curaçao) in the mid-19th century. Panama had the Western Hemisphere’s first Jewish president, Eric Arturo Delvalle (del Valle), who served in the 1980s.

Language
Spanish is the official language of Panama and is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Although fewer than one-tenth of the people speak American Indian languages, all of Panama’s Indian groups preserve their native tongues, and many Indians also speak Spanish. Most Panamanians from West Indian backgrounds speak English, which is also commonly taught in schools.

Religion
Roman Catholicism is the religion of about three-fourths of Panamanians. The number of Protestants grew rapidly in the late 20th century, especially among Pentecostal churches. There is also a long-standing Protestant tradition within the African population of Bocas del Toro province and among Indian groups and West Indian immigrants. Three synagogues serve the Jewish population. Some Panamanians practice the syncretic religion Santería, a combination of Roman Catholic and traditional West African beliefs and customs. Panama’s constitution guarantees freedom of worship.

Cultural Life
Panama’s culture is a blend of African, American Indian, North American, and Spanish influences, which are expressed in its traditional arts and crafts, music, religion, sports, and cuisine. Panamanian music is popular throughout Latin America, and the country is known as well for its many festivals. Other aspects of traditional culture are well preserved, especially by the country’s Indian peoples. Panama is a cultural melting pot, adapting elements from a wide variety of sources and valuing innovation as much as the good things of the past.

Cultural milieu
The cosmopolitan urban culture near the canal contrasts with the rural culture of the savannas. The latter area, with its cattle ranches and horsemanship, is a centre of Hispanic tradition. Old folk songs and handicrafts are preserved there—for example, around the towns of Chitré and Las Tablas. Also culturally distinctive are the territories of the various Indian groups, each with its language and handicrafts, such as the bright smocks (molas) decorated with reverse appliqué panels worn by Kuna women and the netted carrying bags made by the Guaymí. The Kuna have a strong tradition of storytelling (oral literature), including epic poetry that—when written— can extend for hundreds or thousands of lines. Other areas of cultural interest include the Caribbean islands of Almirante Bay, with their Antillean customs.

Panama City’s Historic District is known for its colonial architecture, which dates to the 17th century. In 1997 the district was designated a World Heritage site, as were the old Caribbean coastal fortifications of Portobelo and San Lorenzo in 1980.

Daily life and social customs
Panama has adopted elements of food and culture from South and Central America, the Caribbean (including African influences), North America, Asia, and the Middle East. This is especially true in the areas near the canal where more than half the population lives. Caribbean influence is strongest along the northern coast and among the Afro-Panamanian population, many of whom are descended from English-speaking Caribbean families who came to build the canal. U.S. influence is strongest among the urban middle and upper classes; these groups typically speak English as well as Spanish, increasingly use the Internet and cell phones, have greater opportunities to travel abroad, and consume expensive goods brought in from abroad and sold in some of Latin America’s best-appointed shopping centres. Major economic and social inequalities persist, and most Panamanians in isolated rural areas continue to be poor and to have traditional lifestyles.

Panamanian food reflects the nation’s cosmopolitan background, particularly its Colombian, U.S., and Caribbean influences. Rice, beans, and corn are basic staples, and good use is made of seafood and tropical fruits and vegetables. Arroz con pollo and sancocho, two chicken dishes, are considered national favourites. Chiles and the herb culantro flavour many dishes. Also widespread are Panamanian versions of the seviche, tamales, and empanadas found throughout Latin America. Locally produced beers and rum are the most popular alcoholic beverages, but North American brands dominate the soft drink industry.

Popular entertainment is also a result of Panama’s multicultural heritage. Caribbean rhythms and North American rock are more popular than traditional Hispanic music. Mexican and Venezuelan telenovelas (soap operas) compete with American productions for the television audience.

The arts
Anthropologists and folklorists have published many Kuna stories and poems, in the process creating one of the best-documented bodies of Native American literature. Apart from Panama’s indigenous arts and oral traditions, few artistic achievements were produced in the region prior to independence in 1903. The themes of earlier works were mostly European or church-related. Some progress has been made in national expression since that time—by poets and fiction writers such as Gaspar Octavio Hernández, Ricardo Miró, and Gloria Guardia, among others—and there has been some international recognition of Panamanian artists. Panama’s larger cities are often visited by international musical and theatrical groups and by poets, sculptors, and other artists.

Music in Panama is a lively blend of many styles, including salsa, Cuban son, Colombian cumbia, Argentine tango, and Caribbean island ska, reggae, and soca. Common instruments are drums, castanets, bells, mejoranas (five-stringed guitarlike instruments), and flutes. One of Latin America’s best-known musicians is the Panamanian-born salsa singer and actor Rubén Blades, who ran unsuccessfully for the presidency in 1994. The national dance, the tamborito (“little drum”), features couples moving to a combination of drumbeats.

Cultural institutions
Among the country’s cultural institutions are the Panamanian Art Institute (Panarte), the National Institute of Music, the National School of Music, the National School of Plastic Art, the National School of Dance, and the National School of Theatre. Also of note are the National Commission on Archaeology and Historic Monuments, the National Museum of Panama, and the Panamanian Academy of History. The National Institute of Culture promotes many types of events, including concerts, theatre, and art expositions.

Early history

Before the Spanish arrived in Salvadoran territory in the 16th century, it was occupied by a complex of indigenous peoples. Of these the Pocomam, Chortí, and Lenca, all related to the Maya, were the more ancient, but the Pipil, whose civilization resembled that of the Aztecs in Mexico, were predominant. Archaeological ruins dating from pre-Columbian times are Tazumal, Pampe, El Trapito, and San Andrés. Of several large towns founded by indigenous people, Sonsonate and Ahuachapán still exist. For more information on early history and the treatment of the country in its regional context, see Central America.

The colonial period
The Spanish conquest and colonization of El Salvador began in 1524 with the arrival of an expedition from Guatemala led by Pedro de Alvarado. Alvarado’s troops met determined opposition from a Nahua tribe, the Pipil, that occupied much of the region west of the Lempa River. However, superior tactics and armaments enabled the Spaniards to push on to the Pipil capital of Cuscatlán. Alvarado soon returned to Guatemala, but a second expedition, in 1525, founded a Spanish town called San Salvador near the site of Cuscatlán. Pipil warriors forced the Spanish settlers to withdraw, however, and the community would be resettled several times before it was permanently established in 1528.

Thereafter, the town of San Salvador would serve as the capital of a province of the same name that included most of the eastern three-fourths of the territory of present-day El Salvador. The area to the west (comprising the present-day regions of Sonsonate, Santa Ana, and Ahuachapán), which the Pipil called Izalcos, was organized in 1558 as the autonomous province of Sonsonate and would not be incorporated as a part of El Salvador until 1823.

The lands that would form El Salvador became the agricultural heartland of the captaincy general of Guatemala. Although most of the inhabitants were obliged to depend on subsistence farming, the more fortunate Spaniards found wealth in the export of a variety of local products, all of which experienced periods of “boom and bust.” Cocoa was the most important source of wealth during the 16th century. Increased competition from other colonies led to a marked drop in revenue from cocoa by 1590, and the following century was clearly a period of stagnation for the region. Recovery in the 1700s came as a result of increased exports of indigo.

The indigo trade led to the development of a fairly sophisticated form of commercial agriculture and the creation of large estates operated by families whose members played a leading role in provincial affairs. For the indigenous people, however, the indigo boom chiefly meant that an additional burden was placed on an already exhausted workforce.

Independence
A variety of considerations caused the Salvadoran indigo planters to take a leading role in agitating for Central American independence. These included the hard times caused by a sharp decline in indigo production during the first decade of the 19th century, a long-held hostility toward Guatemalan merchants who controlled much of the economy of San Salvador, and the conviction that the province should be organized as a bishopric so that it need no longer depend upon the archbishop of Guatemala for pastoral services.

In November 1811 the arrest of a member of one of the planter families ignited an uprising led by José Matías Delgado, the provincial vicar of San Salvador, and his nephew Manuel José Arce. The rebels held the government for nearly a month before Spain’s authority was restored by the captain general of Guatemala, whose measures seemed more conciliatory than repressive. A second, shorter uprising in 1814 had wider popular support, and it provoked a more severe response from the captain general, costing Arce more than four years in prison.

In 1821 the province endorsed Guatemala’s declaration of independence from Spain. The Salvadorans, however, opposed the Guatemalan decision to accept incorporation into Agustín de Iturbide’s Mexican empire, a stance that led to confrontations with Guatemalan and Mexican armies. Faced with defeat late in 1822, a Salvadoran congress sought adoption of a resolution providing for the province’s annexation to the United States, but this scheme was abandoned when Iturbide’s government collapsed in 1823. Meeting in June of that year in Guatemala City, a Central American constitutional convention chose Delgado as its president, appointed Arce as a member of the provisional executive triumvirate, and went on to draft a constitution, which was completed in 1824. The state thus created was now called the Federal Republic of Central America, having earlier been termed the United Provinces of Central America; in 1825 Arce became its first president.

Nationhood
The state of San Salvador (the modern-day name, El Salvador, was not used until 1841) played an important part in the affairs of the Central American federation. Not only was it the birthplace of the federation’s first president, but it was also there that a revolt was sparked against Arce in 1827, beginning the civil war in which Central American liberals and conservatives contested for control of the new country. This conflict, which caused the collapse of Arce’s presidency, ended in 1829 with the seizure of the federal government by Francisco Morazán, commander of the liberal army. Having cast their lot with Morazán, the Salvadorans became his most loyal allies and were rewarded in 1834 with the transfer of the federal capital to the city of San Salvador. The Salvadorans were so attached to the ideals of federation that the state did not assume sovereign powers until 1841, one year after the other four member states had already left the federation.

Sovereignty did not signal the arrival of peace and prosperity for El Salvador; if anything, the new country experienced increased civil strife and international conflict for several decades after 1841. From that year until 1863, just one chief of state could claim continuous service that ran two full years. During this time, El Salvador was involved in wars with neighbouring countries that usually arose from attempts to meddle in their politics. Often El Salvador found that the final arbiter of its political affairs was Rafael Carrera, conservative dictator of Guatemala from 1839 until his death in 1865. In the midst of this turmoil, El Salvador secured the establishment of the long-sought bishopric and saw the beginnings of the coffee industry, which was advanced in part by the policies of Pres. Gerardo Barrios Espinosa (1861–63).

A coffee republic
The presidency of Francisco Dueñas (1863–71) pointed toward greater political stability for the country. Real change, however, came when his overthrow in 1871 marked the beginning of a 60-year period of rule by liberals, who focused on the pursuit of economic growth and domestic tranquility. Late in the 19th century, a substantial shift in the country’s economy became essential when the development of synthetic dyes severely reduced the income normally generated by the export of indigo. Salvadorans solved this problem by means of a “coffee revolution.” New lands had to be opened to cultivation, a step facilitated during the administration of Rafael Zaldívar (1876–85), who authorized the sale of the land of indigenous people (Indians). These proceedings provoked uprisings by the indigenous people, which were put down by a newly created rural mounted police force.

The coffee planters developed a highly efficient system of plantation enterprises and formed a closely knit elite that used its growing economic strength to ensure that the government served its interests. Among the small number of controlling families, just two—the Meléndez and Quiñónez families—monopolized the office of the president between 1913 and 1927.

Ethnic groups
The intermarriage of Spanish settlers with the indigenous population of the region has resulted in a largely ethnically homogeneous people. Almost nine-tenths of the population is mestizo (people of mixed indigenous [Indian] and European ancestry); the remainder consists of indigenous peoples (including the Izalco and, from the village of Panchimalco, the Pancho), people of European ancestry, and other small groups.

Languages
Spanish is the official language of El Salvador. During the precolonial epoch various indigenous dialects were spoken, the most important of these being Nahuatl, spoken in the central region of the country, and Poton, spoken in the east. After the initial conquest, Spanish became the official language, and the indigenous dialects slowly fell into disuse. A government effort was made to preserve Nahuatl, but it proved unsuccessful.

Religion
About one-half of Salvadorans are Roman Catholics. Since the 1990s Evangelical Protestantism has made inroads, particularly among the poor, and by the 2010s more than one-third of Salvadorans were Protestants. There are also smaller groups who practice other faiths.

The arts
El Salvador’s elite have long prized the arts, especially literature. But any kind of antigovernment literature was an extremely dangerous enterprise during the civil war years. Many Salvadoran writers, artists, and intellectuals fled the country. Few returned, but those who did, including poets Manlio Argueta and Francisco Rodriguez, gave frequent readings before large audiences. One of the country’s most widely respected poets, Roque Dalton, was assassinated in 1975 as a result of leftist internecine struggle.

Private benefactors have played as important a role as that of the government in patronizing the arts. The government has increased its contribution to national cultural life, particularly in its expansion of secondary and continuing education.

Cultural milieu
The cultural life of El Salvador, like its population, is an amalgam of Indian and Spanish influences, though European influences predominate, largely because most Indian cultural activities have been suppressed by the government since the 1930s. Indian customs do survive, however, in small clusters of villages, such as those around Izalco and Nahuizalco, and traditional crafts are produced in Ilobasco (pottery) and Izalco (textiles). This cultural mix also can be seen in the country’s rich tradition of folklore, poetry, and painting. The Roman Catholic Church also has been a major influence on almost every aspect of cultural life.

Daily life and social customs
Owing to the large number of Salvadorans who have immigrated to, or returned from, the United States since the 1980s, the lifestyle of broad segments of El Salvador’s urban population (and even that of those in many rural areas) has become increasingly Americanized. In one of San Salvador’s wealthier neighbourhoods, Escalón, a number of multiscreen cinemas have opened, and the city’s principal boulevard is lined with shopping malls and fast-food restaurants. On weekends North American, South American, and Mexican rock music is played in the bars.

Salvadorans of all classes enjoy their country’s folk music. Although the country’s dozens of radio stations mostly play North American and Mexican popular music, there has been a revival of the canción popular, folk music often mixed with political commentary. Canción popular can frequently be heard playing in El Salvador’s restaurants, which serve staples such as casamiento, a spicy mixture of rice and beans, and pupusa, a sandwich made of cheese, meat, or beans wrapped in cornmeal.