According to UNESCO, “cultural heritage does not end at monuments and collections of objects. It also includes traditions or living expressions inherited from our ancestors and passed on to our descendants, such as oral traditions, performing arts, social practices, rituals, festive events, knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe or the knowledge and skills to produce traditional crafts”. In 2003, UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Convention has proposed the above five broad domains of Intangible Cultural Heritage because Intangible cultural heritage plays an important role in protecting cultural diversity against the process of globalization and social transformation. Safeguarding such heritages contributes to intercultural dialogue and promotes mutual respect for other lifestyles. To this end and after the convention, UNESCO began to register the cultural and spiritual heritage of all countries, and national commissions were set up in each country to introduce the intangible heritage that meets the requirements for global registration.

Skills of Crafting and Playing Iranian Dotār
Dotār is the oldest stringed musical instrument not only in Iran, but also in all the Middle East and Central Asia. The depiction of this musical instrument is existing in some of the ancient rock reliefs. In a book composed in Pahlavi language Dotār is called Tanbur or Tambur.

Pilgrimage to the St. Thaddeus Apostle Monastery
Pilgrimage to the St. Thaddeus Apostle Monastery was added to the list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (UNESCO). The monastery of St. Thaddeus (also known as the Qara Kelisa) is located in the province of West Azerbaijan, 20 km from the southwest of Maku City, in proximity to a village with the same name.

Qalishuyan (Carpet Washing) Ritual in Mashhad-e Ardehal
There are some nearby villages in the west of Kashan City which is called Aredhal altogether. The center of these villages is Mashhad-e Ardehal that is also known as Mashhad-e Qali (means carpet) by the locals. Being the martyrdom place of one of the Shia’ Imamzadehs is why this place is called Mashhad which literary means the place of Shahadat (martyrdom).

Ritual Dramatic Art of Ta’ziye
Ta’ziye literally means mourning, however, what is evoked for Iranians by hearing the name of Ta’ziye is a special religious and ritual drama in which those who are familiar with the drama techniques perform some theatre for the sake of Moharram and the pains of the third Shia Imam, his family and friends in the region of Karbala and during their battle with Yazid. Since reading artistically the poems is more important than the method of performing the events, it has been named “Ta’ziye Khani” in comparison with “Rodha Khani”.

Pahlevani and Zoorkhanei Rituals
Zoorkhaneh or Humorous sport is an epic art indicating the Islamic, mythic and ancient Iranian beliefs. This traditional sport is done by 10 to 20 men and it is considered a kind of dramatic sport like Gymnastics. The place of performing this sport is traditionally called Zoorkhaneh (the house of power) which is an enclosed club similar to the shrines in ancient Iran, based on some beliefs.

Nowruz
Nowruz indicates the first day of the new year in Iran and some of neighboring countries. According to Dehkhoda: “the first day of Farvardin when the sun reaches the Borj-e Haml; the beginning of spring which means the new day. It is stated that God created the Man in this day and all seven stars were ordered to revolve.

Iranian Miniature
Iranian Miniature is one of the brilliant artwork from Iran’s past culture. Some scholars said that the origin of such paintings in Iran dates back to the Achaemenid period, while this art can be found inside caves. Examples have been discovered in Lorestan province caves. Attention has been paid to the depiction of battle scenes, hunting, and animals.

Bayasanghor Shahnameh
Bayasanghor Shahnameh (Persian: شاهنامه بایسنقری‎) is one of the historical monuments of Iran, which is included in UNESCO’s Memory of the World Register of cultural heritage items in 2007. UNESCO’s Memory of the World Program is a program that was proposed by the International Advisory Committee in 1992 and approved by the Director-General of UNESCO. The purpose of this project is to preserve the documentary heritage and ease of access to them and to prevent illegal trading, looting, dispersal, and destruction. The most important criteria for selecting these works are their universal value.

The Deed of Endowment of the Rab’ i-Rashidi, a 13th-century manuscript
The Deed of Endowment of the Rab’ i-Rashidi (Persian: وقفنامه ربع رشیدی), a 13th-century manuscript, was added to the UNESCO Memory of the World register in 2007. The Memory of the World register is a program proposed by the International Advisory Committee in 1992 and endorsed by the Director-General of UNESCO. The purpose of this project is to preserve the documentary heritage and ease of access to them, as well as to prevent illegal trade, looting, dispersal, and destruction of this valuable heritage. The most important criteria for selecting these works are global importance and outstanding value at the international level.

Naqqāli, Iranian Dramatic Story-telling
Recitation or Parda Khwani is one of the ancient rituals in Iran, with different changes over time. The origin of recitation goes back, in terms of etymology-meaning “story-telling”-, to Parthian period and the Gosans who were well-known for relating the epic stories. Although there existed other similar traditions in form of storytelling accompanied by music, during Sassanid period, with paying especial attention to folklore, national and epic narratives, we mean by recitation, nowadays, a prospered ritual in Islamic era which cannot be assessed separated from its religious attributions.

Chogan (Polo)
Today introduced by Olympic international committee as one of the universal sports. Polo has been popular among the kings and Iranian grandee in the past and its name as an aristocratic sport is derived from that. This game dates back to 600 years BC and its genesis is related to Achaemenid era. In fact, Polo firstly just had a recreational function in order to show the Iranian military horses talent. Based on the historical evidence, Shah Abbas I was playing Polo in Qazvin and Isfahan (Naqsh-e Jahan square). Unfortunately, Polo gradually was forgotten after the Safavid era, however, it was considered again through contact with Europeans in Pahlavi era, but its former significance never returned again. Nowadays, some effort has been done to promote the Polo and it is hoped that Polo will be inscribed on the UNESCO world heritage list as an Iranian sport up to 2017. The name of Polo is taken from a piece of wood which is used in this game and the players’ proficiency in hitting the ball with Polo, horse riding, coordination and balancing in the game in highly important.

Traditional Skills of Building and Sailing Iranian Lenj Boats in the Persian Gulf
Building Lenj and boat is one of the oldest local industries in south of Iran dating back to Afsharid period. However, the history of Iranian sailing can be considered to be even longer after discovering Sasanid antiquities in today’s Mongolia and also Parthian and Sasanid ports.

Flatbread making and sharing culture: Lavash, Katyrma, Jupka, Yufka
People have baked the bread from a long time ago. At first, they were mixing the pounded grains with water and baking it on the hot stones; the process of baking bread was then completed over time and after discovering new techniques. Each country has its own bread baking culture. Lavash is one of the oldest breads in Iran which is made today in both traditional and modern ways.

Traditional Skills of Carpet Weaving in Fars
One of the most important arts in Fars region with a universal reputation is carpet weaving which is famous as Fars Carpet. The texture in most of the old Fars carpets was woven of wool and all carpets produced in this province are the products of the nomad women in whole process.

Traditional Skills of Carpet Weaving in Kashan
Kashan city was the center of carpet weaving in Shah Abbas period and many carpet weaving workshops were established in this city based on his command. Silk, silver and golden carpets which are best-known as Shah Abbas carpets are attributed to this city. The history of Kashan carpets can be assessed in two periods: a golden period and a period after approximately two centuries of the closure.

Radif of Iranian Music
Iranian music is also called Iranian traditional music, classical music of Iran and sometimes instrumental music of Iran. In fact, this art has been transferred orally from Master to student over the years and what is today available to us as the traditional music of Iran is the result of the great men and women endeavor.

Music of the Bakhshies of Khorasan
Musicians and singers of North Khorasan include three groups as Lovers, Bakhshies and Leveler (Luti); playing instruments like Kamancheh, Dotar, Sorna, Drum, Quseme and Ney, they compose songs compatible with each historical and cultural event. When the sheep get sick, they composed hymns like Lalezar and in case of enemy attack romantic songs as Allah Mazar are made. Meanwhile, Bakhshis are Dotar players who relate orally to people a corpus of morality, mysticism, poem and literature from a generation to another up to now.

Art of crafting and playing with Kamantcheh
Kamancha is one of the Iranian traditional and original musical instruments with a long history. The name of Kamancha has been appeared in some poems and texts from early Islamic periods. The first historic evidence of Kamancha is related to Farabi’s Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir in 4th century AH. He called Kamancha is his book by its Arabic name “Rebab”; therefore, some believe that Kamancha has been made by the evolution of Rebab.

IRAN with 24 UNESCO World Heritage Sites is one of the 10 countries with the most Cultural Heritage Sites in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list.

24 heritage sites in Iran have already been registered in the UNESCO’s list of World Heritage: Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran, Bam and its Cultural Landscape, Bisotun, Cultural Landscape of Maymand, Golestan Palace, Gonbad-e Qabus, Masjed-e Jame of Isfahan, Meidan-e Emam, Pasargadae , Persepolis , Shahr-i Sokhta, Sheikh Safi al-din Khanegah and Shrine Ensemble in Ardabil, Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System, Soltaniyeh Dome, Susa, Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex, Takht-e Soleyman, Tchogha Zanbil, The Persian Qanat, Lut desert,The Persian Garden, Sassanid Archeological Landscape of Fars Region, Historic City of Yazd as well as Hyrcanian Forests.

Pasargadae
Pasargadae complex is an ancient area, including a large number of structures which was remained from the first capital of the Achaemenid era (sixth century BC) in Iran, located in the valley of Polvār River, and established by Cyrus the Great.

Gonbad-e Qabus
The historical tower of Gonbad-e Qabus is one of the outstanding architectures of the Islamic era dating back to the 4th century AD. Despite the limited use of decorating elements, the tower has a harmoniously fortified structure.

Lut Desert
Getting confused with “Dahst-e Kavir” and called “Kavir-e Lut”, due to their similarities, Lut Desert is the first wide desert in the south-east of Iran and one of the hyper-hot and arid deserts around the world; Extended across three provinces of south Khorasan, Sistan & Baluchestan and Kerman, it has covered about 10 per cent of Iran’s extent. It was measured as the hottest spot on the planet in 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2009 by situating in geothermal pole of the earth. Also, it has recorded as the hottest spot in all around the earth planet with 70˚C temperature in 2005.

Shushtar Historical Hydraulic System
Shushtar hydraulic system, one of the oldest engineering masterpieces in Iran and the world, has been constructed as an economical-industrial complex in the vicinity of the Shushtar historical area, under Sassanid Empire. This hydraulic system is an interconnected complex of mills, waterfalls, bridges, dams, channels, huge water conduction tunnels and Sika (a Leisure place) which work together in order to optimal use of water power as the driving force of industrial mills. The system distributes the Karun water to all regions of Shushtar and the cities around. All areas of waterfalls and mills was built of Granite and lime mortar, and the material of making nesting rooms was carved stones and also stone walls of the river.

Soltaniyeh
Soltaniyeh historical dome, the largest brick dome in the world, was built commissioned by Sultan Mohammad Khodabandeh (Oljeitu) in Soltaniyeh city, the capital of Ilkhanid dynasty from 1302 to 1312. This mausoleum, as an artistic masterpiece of Iranian and Islamic architecture, in Azari style is the first monument through which we can clearly follow the evolution process of Persian-Islamic architecture from Seljuk to Ilkhanid. Brick is the main material used in this building.

Meidan Emam, Isfahan
Historical square of Naqsh-e Jahan, currently known as Meidan Emam is one of the largest, most beautiful and magnificent squares in the world established in a garden named Naqsh-e Jahan (related to Seljuk era) in a rectangle-shaped place commissioned by Shah Abbas I . This square is the second large square in Isfahani architectural style.

Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran
The Complex of Armenian churches, some nearby buildings and Dare Sham village are the elements of cultural exchange between Orthodox Byzantine and Iranian culture. Located at the end southeast of the Armenian cultural domain, these churches became the center of Armenian cultural dissemination in Azerbaijan of Iran and they are currently preserved under good conditions.

Sheikh Safi al-Din Khanegah and Shrine Ensemble
Sheikh Safi al-Din (a famous poet and theosophist) Khanegah and Shrine Ensemble (Persian: آرامگاه شیخ صفی الدین اردبیلی) is one of Iran’s UNESCO world heritage sites. It is located in Ardebil, Iran. Sheikh Safi-al-Din Khanegah and Shrine Ensemble is the masterpiece of post-Islamic Iranian architecture that attracts many Iranians and non-Iranians to Ardebil. This site is registered as number 1345 on UNESCO world heritage lists. It built using traditional Iranian architecture (Ilkhanid & Timurid) and inspired by Sufism.

Tchogha Zanbil
Tchogha Zanbil historical region is an ancient city constructed by Elamite king in the 13th century BC. This city was consisted of different parts such as Ziggurat, concentric enclosed walls, entrance gateways, temples, houses, palaces, water disposal facilities and three inner, central and outer fences. The holiest part of the city, Ziggurat (an Akkadian word used for multi-story temples in Elam and Mesopotamia), was an ancient worship place which is located on a hill along the Dez river bank.

Persepolis
Takht-e Jamshid (Persepolis, Parse, Parse Polis), is a huge complex including palaces, gates, kings mausoleums, reliefs, and glorious stairways constructed on the west hillside of Rahmat mountain; it was started to establish in 518 BC and completed after 150 years. Being developed during the dynasty of Darius I, Xerxes and Artaxerxes I, this ancient city was considered a majestic and ceremonial capital for Achaemenian, which had been constructed on a stone terrace higher than the Marvdasht flatlands.

Golestan Palace
Golestan palace is one of the exclusive historical complexes of Iran established in different times and for different functions. The name is derived from the Golestan Hall, located in the exterior edifice. The construction of this complex was started in Safavid era. Chahar bagh and Chenarestan were built in the north part of the complex at the time of Shah Abbas I and the royal edifice added there but nothing remained today.

Cultural Landscape of Maymand
Maymand is a rocky and dugout village and one of the primary habitats of man in Iran with approximately 2 – 3 thousand years history. The close relationship between life and the surrounding nature is the particular values of this historical village in such a way that it continues, even currently and in spite of the new technology developments, to be an original site and keeps its original appearance without any tangible manipulating the nature.

The Persian Qanat
Qanat is a symbol of civilization, tradition and culture in desert regions with arid climate and an outstanding example of using architectural complicated systems in Iran. In fact, Qanat is a tunnel-like channel underground which collects water from a main water source naming “mother well” in order to conduct water along tunnels and finally enable settlement and agriculture. The place where the water of Qanat exits from the surface is named Mazhar.

Shahr-i Sokhta (Burnt City)
Shahr-i Sokhta, one of the wonders in the ancient world, a unique sample of the first, the biggest and the most advanced urban establishments in the southeast of Iran, had been founded along the direction of the Hirmand River to Hamun Lake. Shahr-i Sokhta and its civilization, with more than 5000 years history, as a scientific, industrial, social, cultural and artistic center, was an archaeological site in the Bronze Age. The establishment here initiated from 3200 BC and the archaeologists found the traces of four phases of life up to 1800 BC.

Bisotun
Bisotun world heritage site was a famous place in the history of ancient Iran and south-west Asia with an uninterrupted archeological sequence from pre–history to 20th century AD. Carved on limestone on the Bisotun hillside (southern hillside of Paru Mountain), Bisotun inscription is the largest, most famous and the first known Iranian inscription. Traces of a brown glaze and the lead layer in first lines of inscription seem to be parts of a previous coverage with an unknown coating which had been used in order to increase sustainability. Bisotun Mountain features not only a religious role, but also it is located along the ancient trade route linking the west and center of Iran with Mesopotamia and therefore, it was highly visible to public.

Bam & Its Cultural Landscape
Arg-e-Bam, the largest mud brick complex of the world, is a huge fort, at the heart of which the main Arg (castle) is located as the highest sector; however, the name “Arg-e Bam” refers to the whole construction. Bam city and its Arg had been among the most historical military forts constructed along the Silk Road. According to some narrations, the origins of this Bam complex can be traced back to Achaemenid or Parthian eras, although it continued to live as a residential area up to the late Qajar period.

Susa
The ancient city of Susa was founded as one of the most important and glorious settlements in the world dated back to 4000 BC (according to some theorists, it dated back to ca. 7000 BC). This historical area has been a place of urban life from the ancient times until now and once upon a time, it was the point of encounter between two major civilizations of the ancient world, “Mesopotamia” and “Elam”, as the oldest city of the world. .

Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex
Known as the largest enclosed complex in Iran and anywhere around the world, Tabriz Historic Bazaar Complex is, as a city block, the most important and completed social organization among Iran bazaars. The complex includes different commercial, religious, cultural, health, sports, hygienic and residential functions; the complex including many houses for local and non-local traders is the masterpiece of Iranian architecture.

Masjed-e Jame of Isfahan
Known as one of the most important and among the earliest religious buildings in Iran, Masjed-e Jāmé of Isfahan is a magnificent and exquisite, artistically and technically significant monument, which embraces several phases of Islamic architectural development. The mosque is one of the largest and the most mysterious mosques in the Muslim world in which the main building was developed in early Islamic period, on the basis of a late Sassanid monument.

Historic city of Yazd
The historic city of Yazd, a vast and ancient region dated back with ato several thousand years ago history for several thousand years, is considered as the most extensive, most systematic and most original historical area of Iran and the second largest residential adobe area of the world. The extent, integrity and preservedation of the historical originality aspects of the city, as well as the use of indigenous local materials and consumption of the least energy in the construction of adobe buildings is one of the most distinctive features of the Yazd unique architecture compatible with the hot and dry aride climate of the desert.

Takht-e Soleyman
Known as an important historical and cultural complex and, according to legend, the birthplace of Zoroaster, Takht-e Soleyman had been the dwelling of different tribes along history: Mendes, Achaemenian, Parthian, Sassanian and Ilkhanian. It was considered as one of the largest pre-Islamic Iranian instructional, religious, social and worship center.

Caspian Hyrcanian Forests
Remained from Cenozoic geology and Ice Age due to the northern temperate weather in the region, Hyrcanian forests are a unique forested massif along the southern coast of Caspian Sea, related to Triassic period which was inscribed as the 2nd Iran’s natural heritage on UNESCO World Heritage List. The Hyrcanian forests have been extended in some parts of five provinces including Semnan, Golestan, Gilan, Mazandaran and North Khorasan with 1.9 million HA area (approximate length of 800 kilometers and the width of 20-70 kilometers) from Astara in the north of Gilan province to Golidagh in the east of Golestan province.

The Persian Gardens
Diversity of designs and exclusive architectural styles in Persian gardens symbolizes the image of Eden with four Zoroastrian elements of sky, earth, water and plants. Persian garden with three certain features and an exclusive design is globally well-known as outstanding example of Persian culture: (1) located along the water stream; (2) surrounded by high walls; and (3) contained a summer edifice and a pool of water.

Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region
Sassanid Archaeological Landscape of Fars Region includes the most valuable historical monuments in terms of, architectural and urban is monuments development, palaces, forts and reliefs related to Sassanid empire (224 to 658 AD) and it is all located in the historical regions of Firouz Abad, Bishapur and Sarvestan. We can visit here a collection of glorious art of architectural decoration including Iwan construction, the first examples of a dome construction rising above on the quadrangle structures, using adobe and ballast stone carcass with Sarooj mortar and art of stone carving. art used in exist monuments in Sassanid archaeological landscape of Fars region.

General information
Iran (officially the Islamic Republic of Iran) is a large country located in the Middle East. It is bordered to the north by the Caspian Sea and the south by the Persian Gulf. With an area of 1,648,195 square kilometers, Iran is the 17th largest country in the world. It is a proof you have to spend more than a couple of days in Iran!

Tehran, the capital city of Iran, is the country’s largest and most populated city. Isfahan, Shiraz, Tabriz and Mashhad are other major cities of the country.

Persian (Farsi) is the official language of the country and is widely spoken. A large number of people also speak other languages/dialects namely Azeri, Kurdish, Luri, Arabic, Baluchi, Gilaki, Mazandarani/Tabari, and Turkmen.

Geography
Bordering Countries & Coastlines
Located in southwestern Asia, Iran shares its entire northern border with the Republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan (all parts of the former Soviet Union). Of all the 2,670 kilometer northern borders, 650 kilometers is coastline border with the Caspian Sea. Iran’s western borders are shared with Turkey in the north and Iraq in the south. Afghanistan and Pakistan are Iran’s neighbors from the East. To the south, Iran’s border is the long coastline of the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea.

Persian Gulf is the shallow marginal part of the Indian Ocean. The sea area of 240,000 square kilometers start from the Arvand Rud delta to the Strait of Hormoz, which links it with the Sea of Oman. It is bordered on the north, northeast and east by Iran, on the northwest by Iraq and Kuwait, on the west and southwest by Saudi Arabia and Qatar, and on the south and the southeast by the UAE and partly by Oman.

Islands
Iran has the largest number of islands in the Persian Gulf, the most important of which are as follows: Minoo, Kharg (Iranian oil terminal, site of one of the world’s largest deep-water oil ports), Sheikh Sa’ad, Sheikh Sho’ayb, Hendurabi, Kish (a free zone and the largest island of Iran in the Strait of Hormoz), Farur, Siri, Abu Mussa, the Greater and Lesser Tumbs, Qeshm, Hengam, Larak, Farsi, Hormoz, and Lavan.

The southern part has many ports too. The most significant Iranian ports on the Persian Gulf are Abadan, Khorramshahr, Bandar-e Imam Khomeini (former Shahpur), Mahshahr, Deilam, Genaveh, Rig, Bushehr, Bandar-e Lengeh, and Bandar-e Abbas.

Rivers
Several rivers are flowing inside Iran mainland, the only navigable of which is the Karun (920-km). Other large rivers are: The Atrak (535 km), Dez (515 km), Hendijan (488 km), Jovein (440 km) Jarahi (438 km), Karkheh (755 km), Mand (685 km), Qara Chai (540 km), Sefid Rud (795 km), and the Zayandeh Rud (405 km). During the summertime, there is little water flowing in the mainland rivers.

Mountainous Areas & Deserts
Iran has two mountain ranges. The high Alborz range in the north rises 5,670 meter at Mount Damavend (the tallest peak in the country) and spreads from the southern part of the Caspian Sea all the way to the east close to the border lines of Khorasan. Zagros Mountain Range is another mountain range exceeding from northwest to southeast.

The eastern part of Iran country is the location of two salt deserts: Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut with 1,287 km total long.

Economy
The economy of Iran is run by different forces; central planning, state ownership of oil production, agriculture, and private trading and service ventures joined together to move the economy.

Iran’s Official unit of currency is the Iranian Rial but Iranian people always use a more colloquially and historically known denomination of Tomans.

10 IR = 1 Toman. Everyone uses this word instead of Rial except for some special cases. It is common in Iran for a shop keeper to ask for 100 Tomans for an item that costs 1000 Rials.

If you follow the Iran news, you may be aware that the government cabinet has approved a call from the country’s central bank to change the currency from Rial to Toman. It is unclear when new Toman coins and notes will be minted and printed. If you are planning to exchange your money before arriving in Iran, it wouldn’t hurt to check the news beforehand.

Iran expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment by providing more favorable investment ground, such as reduced restrictions on tourism bureaucratic process and free-trade zones like in Kish Island.

Iran is one of the largest oil producer in the world and enjoys the world’s second largest natural gas reserves. However, the government is putting an extra focus on non-oil revenue by increasing state investments in tourism, agriculture, and marketing.

The export-based agricultural products include dates, flowers, and pistachios. Iran has also developed a successful biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. Iran’s trading partners are Germany, France, Italy, Russia, China, Japan and South Korea.

Agriculture
Agriculture is one of the historical industries in Iran. Domestication of goats dates back to 10,000 BC. Fruits like peaches were first imported to Europe from Persia. Natural archeological studies proved tulips were first cultivated in ancient Persia. It is interesting to know the terminology of the herb “spinach”; the word spinach is derived from the Persian word Esfenaj. The Chinese referred to it in 647CE as ‘the herb of Persia’.

History can be very delicious knowing ice cream was made in Persia since 400 BC, and cookies family tree lead them to Persian kulucheh in the 7th century.

The domestication of chickens dates back to 5,000 BC. It is funny to know that mid fifth century BC poet Cratinus (Athenaeus) calls the chicken “the Persian alarm”. In Aristophanes’ comedy The Birds (414 BC) a chicken is called “the Median bird”, which points to its introduction from Persia.

Bahrain has been inhabited since prehistoric times, and several thousand burial mounds in the northern part of the main island probably date from the Sumerian period of the 3rd millennium BCE. It was the seat of ancient Dilmun (Telmun), a prosperous trading centre linking Sumer with the Indus valley about 2000 BCE. The archipelago was mentioned by Persian, Greek, and Roman geographers and historians. It has been Arab and Muslim since the Muslim conquest of the 7th century CE, though it was ruled by the Portuguese from 1521 to 1602 and by the Persians from 1602 to 1783. Since 1783 it has been ruled by sheikhs of the Khalīfah family (Āl Khalīfah), which originated in the Al-Ḥasā province of Arabia.

The British protectorate
Several times during the 19th century, the British intervened to suppress war and piracy and to prevent the establishment of Egyptian, Persian, German, or Russian spheres of influence. The first Bahraini-British treaty was signed in 1820, although the country’s British-protected status dates from 1861, with the completion of a treaty by which the sheikh agreed to refrain from “the prosecution of war, piracy, or slavery.” Thus, Britain assumed responsibility for the defense of Bahrain and for the conduct of its relations with other major powers. In 1947 this protection briefly became the responsibility of the government of British India, which had both commercial and strategic interests in the Persian Gulf, but it reverted to Britain following India’s independence. Until 1970 the government of Iran periodically advanced claims to sovereignty over Bahrain, but these were repudiated.

Britain’s decision to withdraw all of its forces from the gulf in 1968 led Sheikh ʿIsa ibn Salman Al Khalifah to proclaim Bahrain’s independence in August 1971. A treaty of friendship was signed with the United Kingdom, terminating Bahrain’s status as a British protectorate, and Sheikh ʿIsa was designated the emir. Bahrain then became a member of the United Nations and the Arab League.

Domestic and foreign relations since independence
After independence, tensions mounted between the predominantly Shiʿi population and Sunni leadership—especially following the 1979 revolution in Iran. The political unrest was fueled by economic and social grievances related to the fall in oil prices and production, cutbacks in public spending, and continued discrimination against the majority Shiʿi population.

In 1981 Bahrain joined with five other Arab gulf states in forming the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), which has led to freer trading and closer economic and defense ties. During the Persian Gulf War (1990–91), Bahrain made its port and airfields available to the coalition forces that drove Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. Although more moderate than Saudi Arabia, Bahrain has generally followed that country’s lead in most foreign policy decisions. The construction of the causeway linking Bahrain with Saudi Arabia has strengthened bilateral relations and regional defense and has helped both countries economically and politically.

Bahrain has maintained relatively good relations with the United States and has continued to house the U.S. Navy’s Fifth Fleet. Iran’s ties to the country’s Shiʿi community, its territorial claims to the island, and its displeasure with the American presence in Bahrain have helped to strain relations between it and Bahrain. Resolution in 2001 of the dispute between Bahrain and Qatar over the Ḥawār Islands improved their already warming relations.

Ethnic groups
Roughly half of the population is Arab, and most inhabitants are native-born Bahrainis, but some are Palestinians, Omanis, or Saudis. Foreign-born inhabitants, constituting about half of the population, are mostly from Iran, India, Pakistan, Britain, and the United States. About three-fifths of the labour force is foreign-born.

Languages
Arabic is the official language of Bahrain. English is widely used, however, and is a compulsory second language at all schools. Persian is also common, although it is spoken mostly in the home. A number of other languages are spoken among expatriates in Bahrain, including Urdu, Hindi, and Tagalog.

Religion of Bahrain
The population is predominately Muslim and includes both the Sunni and the Shiʿi sects, with the latter in the majority. The ruling family and many of the wealthier and more influential Bahrainis are Sunni, and this difference has been an underlying cause of political and social tension. Christians constitute about half of the remaining one-fifth of the population, with the rest consisting of Jews, Hindus, and Bahāʾīs.

Bahrain’s island location has made it unique among Persian Gulf states. With greater access to ocean travel and broader exposure to outside influences, Bahrain traditionally has been home to a more ethnically and religiously diverse and cosmopolitan population than have other, more insular gulf states. This openness is reflected in Bahrain’s social customs, which—although still conservative—are much more moderate and relaxed than those of its neighbours, particularly conservative Saudi Arabia. Thus, although Bahrain is still at heart an Arab-Islamic country, it has been more accepting of modernization and Westernization than many of its neighbours.

Daily life and social customs
The official holidays in Bahrain are generally the same as those observed in most Muslim countries. These include the two festivals, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, and, more recently, the celebration of ʿĀshūrā among the country’s Shiʿis.

Western-style clothing is common in Bahrain, though some men still wear the traditional thawb (full-length tunic) and the kaffiyeh (white head cloth), bound in place by a black, camel-hair cord known as an ʿiqāl—the latter often more ornate, particularly among the political elite. The dress rules for women are relaxed compared to the more conservative, regional standards, although women in rural areas, and those in conservative communities in cities, still wear the veil (ḥijāb) and a traditional long cloak known as an ʿabāyah.

Coffee is an important part of social life. Coffee shops are popular meeting places, and coffee is offered as a sign of hospitality. It is often flavoured with cardamom and saffron. Bahraini cuisine typically features fish, shrimp, meat, rice, and dates. Machbous is a popular traditional dish of fish or meat served with rice. Other typical food includes muḥammar, sweet brown rice with sugar or dates, and shāwarmah, spit-roasted lamb, beef, or chicken.

The arts
Traditional handicraft industries receive state and popular support, and most villages practice specialized traditions; ʿĀlī, for example, is well known for its ceramics, while artists in Karbābād weave baskets from date-palm leaves. Throughout the country artisans engage in gold working, tinsmithing, and textile making and sell their wares at small shops or the Souk al-Arabaʿāʾ (“Wednesday Market”) in Manama. Shipyards at Manama and Al-Muḥarraq are sites of dhow building, a highly respected art form. The museum in Manama contains local artifacts dating from antiquity, such as ivory figurines, pottery, copper articles, and gold rings, many of which reflect various cultural influences from outside Bahrain. There is also a small but flourishing avant-garde art community.

Music is an important part of Bahraini life. There is a rich folk music culture, and fidjeri, songs once sung by pearl divers, are still heard. Since 1991 the country has held an annual music festival. Although the country does not have a film industry, moviegoing is a popular activity, and some of Bahrain’s cinema theatres screen English-language films. In the early 21st century the government undertook a program to encourage the development of theatre.

According to early history, Brunei was discovered by a group of fourteen brothers travelling in search of a new place to live, which would be the beginnings of today’s Brunei.

Early History
When a group of brothers went on a journey for a new place to call home, they came across an area at the Brunei River and settled there because of the flanking hills, the water supply and the generous supply of fish, close to the country’s present capital. One of them was Awang Alak Betatar, who became the first Sultan of Brunei and took on the name Sultan Muhammad Shah when he embraced Islam.

Malay Islamic Monarchy
On January 1st, 1984, Brunei became a new nation, celebrating its independence and affirming its identity as a Malay and Islamic state governed by a monarchy. The philosophy of the Malay Islamic Monarchy, known as ‘Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB)’ in Malay, encapsulates Brunei’s culture and beliefs in a nutshell making it uniquely Bruneian.

Cultural Diversity
Brunei is predominantly made up of Malays (65.8%), with significant Chinese (10.2%), Indian and indigenous populations (23.9%). However, ask a Bruneian Malay what their ethnicity is, and you’ll most likely get either one of these seven answers: Melayu Brunei, Kedayan, Dusun, Tutong, Belait, Murut and Bisaya. (Note that two of them are actually named after two of Brunei’s districts, which gives you a hint as to where most of them live.) The Malay population is divided into these seven ethnic groups and are each characterised by distinct aspects of its culture and lifestyle with their own native language as well as customs and traditions.

Whether you’re thinking of taking a comfortable flight, spending some time on less-travelled roads, or fancy a quick boat ride, Brunei is easily reachable by air, land and sea.

BY AIR
The easiest way to reach Brunei would be through our flag carrier and national airline – Royal Brunei Airlines (RB) – which is serving 22 destinations across Asia, the Middle East, Europe and Australia since December 2018. New flights are being added to Haikou, Taipei, Changsha and Tokyo. RB uses B787 Dreamliner and Airbus A320neo aircraft for these services. Its hub, Brunei International Airport, is also only a 15-minute drive away from the nation’s capital. So don’t worry about those long drives to and from the airport. You’ll have plenty of time. A number of other airlines also fly through the international airport. AirAsia and Malaysia Airlines serves Brunei from Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia), with Singapore Airlines from Singapore, Cebu Pacific from Manila (Philippines), and Lucky Air from Kunming (China).

BY LAND
Not from somewhere far, far away? Thinking of a road trip to Brunei? Well, you’re in luck. There are four ports of entry around Brunei that you can travel through by land. The first and most accessible one is located on the southwestern end of the country in Belait District. Known as Sungai Tujoh Control Post, it lies closest to the Sarawak city of Miri – one of our most visited neighbours. Another one is the Kuala Lurah Control Post, located in the Brunei-Muara District, less than an hour away from the border town of Limbang in northern Sarawak – another popular neighbouring destination. And if you’re coming from the east, travellers from the state of Sabah can also reach Brunei through the ports of entry in the Temburong District: the Labu and Ujong Jalan Control Posts.

BY SEA
Brunei also has a ferry terminal – the Serasa Passengers and Vehicle Ferry Terminal – which frequently sees visitors from Labuan, a federal territory of East Malaysia, located off the coast of Sabah.

The island of Borneo – known for its grand sunsets with mesmerizing colors in the sky blanketing landscapes and silhouettes that are sure to warm your heart. Brunei, located on the coastline of the island will definitely give you the ringside seat to watch the beautiful golden rays as it dips slowly into the horizon, leaving the vast skies a brilliant mix of colours from purple hues to red and pink.

Fortunate to have only one tropical season all year round, Bruneian sunsets generally start around 5:30pm every day. To help you in your sunset chase, here are five places to check out:

The Empire Brunei
Perfectly located on the shores of Jerudong Beach, take a walk to the sunset point overlooking the horizon where you can catch a glimpse of some of the most magical sunsets, or enjoy the beautiful view of the sunset over mocktails or coffee at their Pantai Restaurant.

Tanjong Batu Beach, Brunei/Muara District
A fairly new beach in Brunei, Tanjong Batu has one of the most mesmerizing views especially as the sun slowly disappears into the horizon. Located at the end of the Muara-Tutong Highway and down the road leading to Muara town, follow the signs to ‘Jalan Tanjong Batu’. This long man-made structure and seawall is a popular area for families, joggers and cyclists to relax and unwind. Coupled with gives the seaside a stunning and clear view of the sea, with its calming breeze and the sounds of crashing waves allowing visitors to immerse in tranquility.

Meragang Beach, Brunei/Muara District
This untouched sandy beach is an ideal spot for some quiet reflection and sunset watching. Within walking distance nearby is the Marine Biodiversity Centre where members of the public can visit and learn about the marine life and conservation efforts in Brunei.

Seri Kenangan Beach, Tutong District
Also known as Tutong Beach, Seri Kenangan Beach is located about 45 minutes away from Bandar Seri Begawan. It is generally quiet throughout the week but it can get quite crowded over the weekends as families and friends can be seen setting up barbecues and picnics at the huts dotted around the beach. So, head there early if you want to picnic under a hut and then stay on till the sun sets for a wonderful end to your day!

Belait Beach, Belait District
If you’re heading down to the Belait District, approximately 2 hours away from the capital, pay a visit to Belait Beach. With its long sandy coastline stretching out for miles as far as the eyes can see and the offshore oil platforms glistening in the distance, be prepared to get mesmerized by its beautiful skies as the sun slowly fades into the horizon leaving the skies with a beautiful and majestic array of colours. Belait Beach is known to have one of the most tranquil and mesmerizing sunsets in all of Brunei due to its location and is not to be missed, especially if you’re in the district near sunset hours!

Before you head to any of the beaches in Brunei..
Please make sure to use adequate sun block, bring a hat or a beach umbrella, and put on insect repellant to protect yourself and more importantly, please be mindful to keep our beaches clean and to dispose your rubbish responsibly at designated areas, if any, or bring it with you.

Behind the laid-back multicultural ambience of Christmas Island today lies a fascinating and sometimes turbulent history.

It was the discovery of phosphate in 1888 which was to guide the island’s destiny for the next century. It’s a story of two men, George Clunies Ross and John Murray, and their quest to reap the rewards of phosphate with an imported workforce of Chinese, Malays and Sikhs, who often endured appalling conditions. The signs remain today of the island’s WWII history including a restored gun emplacement. You can also see glimpses of the Japanese invasion and occupation, when islanders and allied submarines successfully sabotaged the mine effort and hundreds of islanders were then shipped to Japanese prisoner of war camps in Indonesia.

Britain took possession of the Island in the name of Queen Victoria, but in 1946 it was placed under the jurisdiction of the Crown Colony of Singapore. In 1958, Britain transferred sovereignty to Australia, and the Island was made an Australian Territory.

As well as the info on this page, you may also like the website, Christmas Island Archives, which has further history articles & images about Christmas Island.

Historical Timeline
25 December 1643
Captain William Mynors on the East Indian Company vessel, the Royal Mary, sees and names the Island on Christmas Day.

1857
Crew of the vessel Amethyst tires to explore the island, but are hampered by inland cliffs and dense jungle.

1887
A party from British naval vessel HMS Egeria reach the summit of what is now Murray Hill, finding phosphate as predicted by Scottish naturalist, Dr John Murray, and in a nearly pure form.

6 June 1888
Great Britain annexes Christmas Island at the urging of John Murray.

1888
George Clunies-Ross, owner of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands sends his brother Andrew and a small party of Cocos Malay workers to form a settlement at Flying Fish Cove to pre-empt any other claim to the island’s resources.

1891
Britain offers rivals Murray and Clunies-Ross a joint phosphate lease for 99 years.

1897
The rival claimants are induced to form the Christmas Island Phosphate Company.

1898
200 Chinese labourers, eight European managers and five Sikh policemen arrive on the island to make up workforce, supplemented by a small number of Malays.

1900
First major shipment of phosphate.

1900-1904
550 die from beri-beri, most of them Chinese.

1908
CW Andrews of the British Museum conducts a comprehensive study of the island’s natural history, following on from his earlier study in 1989.

1914-1918
During World War I phosphate mining was reduced and a rail link from Settlement to South Point built.

1929
The TSS Islander II, a tin screw steamer, was built and remained the islands transport and supply ship until 1960.

6 February 1942
A carley float carrying a body was rescued in Flying Fish Cove. The body was prepared and then buried in the European Cemetery. He was believed to have been from the HMAS Sydney and is now recognised as The Unknown Sailor.

1942
Japanese attack the Norwegian phosphate ship “The Eidsvold” in Flying Fish Cove; 50 Asian and Australian families are evacuated to Perth.

March 1942 – 1945
900 Japanese troops invade and occupy Christmas Island, imprisoning remaining Europeans and hunting 1000 Malay and Chinese workers in the jungle. Islander sabotage and allied submarines lead to suspension of mining. In 1943, half the population is sent to prison camps in Indonesia when food runs low.

1949
Australia and New Zealand buy the Christmas Island Phosphate company and Christmas Island is administered by the Colony of Singapore.

1950’s
Population expands, with labour from Singapore, Malaya and Cocos and supervisors from Australia

1957
The Australian Government paid 2.9 million pounds to Singapore for lost phosphate royalties.1 October 1958
Sovereignty is transferred by the United Kingdom to Australia and Christmas Island becomes an Australian Territory.

1970’s
Union of Christmas Island Workers formed to improve living and working conditions on the Island.

1977
First Government Conservator from the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service appointed after conflicts between mining and conservation.

1980
The first National Park declared over Egeria Point area.

1986 and 1989
Christmas Island National Park extended to cover 63% of the Island.

 

Discovery & Settlement
For centuries, Christmas Island’s isolation and rugged coasts provided natural barriers to settlement. British and Dutch navigators first included the island on their charts from the early seventeenth century, and Captain William Mynors of the East India Ship Company vessel, the Royal Mary, named the island when he arrived on Christmas Day, 25th December, 1643. He was unable to land, however, and it was not until 1688, when the English buccaneering ship Cygnet arrived under Captain Swan, that the first recorded landing took place.

In his book “New Voyage Round the World” (1699), Dampier, who was second mate or master’s mate, recounted how crewmen landed on the west coast (probably at The Dales) and brought back on board large Robber Crabs (Birgus latro) to eat and wood for a pump. This was the first recorded landing on Christmas Island. During the 1872-76 HMS ‘Challenger’ oceanographic expedition around the world, naturalist Dr John Murray collected many mineral specimens, including some from the sea-bed adjoining the Netherlands East Indies (now Indonesia). He predicted that phosphate deposits would be found on an island in the area. British Navy landings on Christmas Island in 1887 confirmed his prediction, and, at his urging, Britain annexed the Island on 6 June 1888.

In November 1888 George Clunies-Ross, owner of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands some 900 kilometres to the south west, sent his brother Andrew and a small party of Cocos Malay workers to form a settlement at Flying Fish Cove to pre-empt any other claim to the Island’s resources. Timber was exported to Cocos and experimental planting took place – none of it successful.

Sovereignty
The Christmas Island Phosphate Company found it difficult to re-establish their operations at the profitable pre-war levels. Australia and New Zealand had become their biggest customers, and on 31 August 1948 their Governments entered into an Agreement to purchase the Company and all its assets. This was given effect by the Christmas Island Agreement Act of 1949. The two Governments employed the British Phosphate Commissioners (BPC), who already mined Ocean Island and Nauru, as their managing agents to run the Christmas Island operation. A massive expansion of infrastructure capacity followed; recruitment of labour from Singapore, Malaya and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands expanded the population; and increasingly the supervisory staff were recruited from Australia. The Island was administered as part of the Colony of Singapore, with a resident District Officer and staff.

Christmas Island Settlement

The United Kingdom had embarked on a de-colonisation process in the period following the Second World War, and the Australian Government expressed interest in acquiring Christmas Island from the UK, just as it had acquired the Cocos (Keeling) Islands in 1955. Agreement was reached, and on 1 January 1958, Christmas Island was excised from the Colony of Singapore and made a separate Crown Colony. The Second Reading Speech in the Australian Parliament on 30 September 1958 for the Christmas Island Agreement Bill included the following: “The principal item in this connexion is the ex gratia payment of approximately 2,800,000 pounds to the Singapore Government to compensate for the loss of revenue from royalties and rent, which were applied to Singapore when the island was a British Colony.” On 1 October of the same year, sovereignty was transferred from the UK to the Commonwealth of Australia. 1 October is still celebrated as Territory Day. The Christmas Island Act 1958 provides the basis of the Territory’s administration, and an Administrator, appointed by the Governor-General of Australia, resides on the Island.

Modern Mining & Conservation
Dramatic social and political changes occurred in the 1970’s with the unionisation of the mine workers.

The Union of Christmas Island Workers, “The Union”, remains a strong force in island politics today, and, in conjunction with the Sweetland Enquiries of 1980 and 1982, has been responsible for dramatic improvements in living and working conditions. Also in the 1970’s, conflicts between conservation and mining interests led to the company appointing a conservation officer in 1974. This was followed in 1977 by the appointment of a Government Conservator from the Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service.

In 1980, a National Park was declared in the Egeria Point area. The National Park now covers over 63% of the island. Around this time, Australia and New Zealand Governments re-negotiated their agreement for provision of phosphate to the two countries. As part of this process, the British Phosphate Commissioners relinquished the management of the mine to the newly formed Phosphate Mining Company of Christmas Island (PMCI). As deposits of preferred quality phosphate neared exhaustion, the mining operation faced economic constraints and probable closure. Initial steps in this direction were two generous redundancy schemes in 1984 and 1986.

The Government created the Christmas Island Services Corporation to relieve the mining operation of community services such as housing, domestic roads, street lighting, swimming pools and cinemas. 1984 also saw the benefits of Australian Citizenship extended to the island in the form of social service benefits and voting in Commonwealth elections. Taxation was also introduced. The effects of drought and low phosphate prices led to a Government decision to close the mine in December 1987.

Phosphate Mining
Murray in England and George Clunies-Ross on Cocos became rivals for control of the phosphate deposits. The British Government offered them a joint 99 year lease in return for a small royalty. Exploration by the Clunies-Rosses showed that the deposits were enormous, and samples sent to England proved to be of high quality. In 1897 the rival claimants were induced to form the Christmas Island Phosphate Company and the lease was transferred to this commercial body. In 1899 Andrew Clunies-Ross and his party returned to Cocos just as the first imported labour arrived. Chinese coolie labour and a small number of Malays and Sikhs operated under European supervision. The first commercial exports of phosphate were sent to Japan and Germany in January 1900. By 1901 the Island population had taken shape: 640 Chinese, a dozen Sikh policemen, 20 Malay boatmen and pony-handlers, a British CIP Co Island Manager, engineers and trade supervisors and a Chinese-speaking British District Officer from the Straits Settlements with a clerk/interpreter.

The rush to take advantage of high world phosphate prices led the Company to cut corners, and a serious outbreak of beri-beri, caused by vitamin deficiency, led to almost 550 deaths from the disease, almost all coolies, in the period 1900-04. Conditions were eventually improved and the mining operation began to flourish in the period up till the First World War, with Japan the biggest customer.

World War II
From the outbreak of war in South East Asia in December 1941, Christmas Island was a target for Japanese occupation because of its rich phosphate deposits. A naval gun was installed under a British officer and four NCOs supported by Indian soldiers.

The first attack was by a Japanese submarine that torpedoed a Norwegian vessel, the Eidsvold, loading phosphate in Flying Fish Cove. This was on 21 January 1942. The vessel drifted and eventually sank off West White Beach. 50 European and Asian staff and their families were evacuated to Perth. In late February and early March 1942, two aerial bombing raids and shelling from the sea led the District Officer to hoist the white flag. After the Japanese naval group sailed away the British officer raised the Union Jack once more. During the night of 10 – 11 March, a mutiny of the Indian troops, abetted by the Sikh policemen, led to the murder of the five British soldiers and the imprisonment of the remaining 21 Europeans. On 31 March a Japanese fleet of 9 vessels arrived and the Island was surrendered. A naval brigade, phosphate engineers and 700 marines came ashore and rounded up the workforce, most of whom had fled to the jungle. Sabotaged equipment was repaired and preparations were made to resume the mining and export of phosphate.

Isolated acts of sabotage and the torpedoing of the Nissei Maru at the wharf on 17 November 1942 meant that only small amounts of phosphate were exported to Japan during the occupation. In November 1943, over 60% of the Island’s population was evacuated to Surabayan prison camps, leaving of total population of just under 500 Chinese and Malays and 15 Japanese to survive as best they could. In October 1945 HMS Rother reoccupied Christmas Island.

From its early days of phosphate discovery in 1881, when settlers and workers arrived bringing cultural and religious traditions, the island community grew to become a fascinating melting pot of cultures.

Today, visitors are welcomed and encouraged to join in, learn more and experience the thriving, contemporary Christmas Island “feel” in the many amazing foods, festivals and places.

Islanders are proud of their home and its harmony, with a blend of Buddhist, Christian, Taoist and Muslim cultures that are celebrated openly. Places of worship are open to all.

The People
The diversity of the settlers’ native tongues and cultures has influenced the island’s own culture, as evidenced by the range of ethnic festivals held throughout the year. Today most residents are Chinese followed by Australian / Europeans and Malay. All are permanent residents of Australia and the majority hold Australian citizenship.

Language
Though English is the official language there are many residents who generally communicate in Malay or one of the four Chinese dialects. The earliest settlers spoke English and Cocos Malay, a unique version of Bahasa Indonesia which has been isolated from the mainstream language for over 150 years. Early arrivals from China mainly spoke Cantonese. Many early place names around the island are Cantonese words – such as Poon Saan- literally meaning half way up the hill.Post war arrivals who came from Penang introduced other Chinese languages including Hakka, Hainese, Hokkien and Teochew, whilst those from Singapore introduced Mandarin. Bahasa Malayu is widely spoken by the Malay Community.Because English was not a prerequisite for employment, a sizeable proportion of todays community is not fluent in English and many residents still converse in their native tongue. The influx of tourists has had an impact on the island’s language. Indonesian is frequently spoken along with many of the Chinese languages. Thai, Japanese, German and a few other Europen languages are sometimes heard.

Taste of The Tropics
Christmas Island’s restaurants, cafes and pubs showcase its rich cultural mix from spicy asian fare to modern western cuisine. A variety of styles is offered from traditional grills, to colonial settings to laid back casual pub options. Some offer the chance to relax over your meal while appreciating stunning outlooks.

Take advantage of the Island’s many picnic and barbecue venues and pack your own hamper from supplies available at the local shops. Restaurants use, and shops supply, fresh local produce when available.

Cafe and restaurant options may be limited during Ramadan, Chinese New Year and Christmas – the Visitor Information Centre can provide information as to what is open during your visit. As most food on Christmas Island is imported the cost for food and meals may be higher than other places to cover the additional transport.

Cultural Tips
– It is suggested that ladies should dress modestly out of respect in the Kampong area.
– Shoes should be removed before entering a house, temple or mosque.
– Muslims use their right hand for eating, giving and receiving and will appreciate if you do the same when meeting them.
– There are dietary requirements which some of the different religions must adhere.
– Refrain from touching a persons head.
– Visitors are welcome to enter and photograph the Chinese Temples and join in the celebrations.

Religions
Despite its mixture of races, languages and religious beliefs, the community works in harmony, freely sharing and borrowing from each others cultures. Religious tolerance is evident from the number of Chinese temples-Buddhist, Taoist, Confucian and others as well as a Christian church, Muslim Mosque and a Baha’i Centre. Many religious and cultural festivals are observed including Christmas, Easter, Chinese New Year and Hari Raya.The cultural diversity of the island has resulted in an adaptation and blending of ideas. People are always happy to tell you why things can sometimes be different on Christmas Island!

Location
Christmas Island is a dot in the Indian Ocean, located 2600km north-west of Perth, Western Australia. Even though it is an Australian Territory, its closest neighbour is Java, 360km away.

Geography
Christmas Island is the summit of a submarine mountain, rising steeply to a central plateau dominated by stands of rainforest. This plateau reaches heights of up to 361 metres and consists mainly of limestone and layers of volcanic rock.

Geologists believe that about 60 million years ago the cone of an undersea volcano surfaced, forming a basin on which a coral atoll then began to form. More then 20 million years ago, the atoll appears to have sunk slowly and limestone was deposited as the coral began to build up. Ten million years later, this process stopped and an island began to emerge from the sea in a series of uplifts. Each of the island terraces was formed by the development of the fringing reef and sea cliff erosion before being uplifted. The lagoon drained and the central plateau was formed. Evidence of these volcanic origins can be seen at The Dales, and Dolly Beach where the basalt rock is exposed, forming the bed of freshwater streams.

The island’s 80 kilometre coastline is an almost continuous sea cliff, of up to 20 metres in height. In a few places, the cliff gives way to shallow bays with small sand and coral shingle beaches. The largest of these bays forms the island’s only port; Flying Fish Cove.
The island is surrounded by a narrow encircling coral reef. There is virtually no coastal shelf, and the sea plummets to a depth of about 500 metres within 200 metres of the shore.

Climate
Christmas Island experiences a tropical equatorial climate with wet and dry seasons. The wet season is from December to April when the island comes under the influence of the north-west monsoons. During the rest of the year, the south-east trade winds bring slightly lower temperatures and humidity with much less rain.

Tropical cyclones occasionally pass close to the island during the monsoon season, bringing strong winds, rain and rough seas. Since settlement, no cyclone has been recorded passing directly over the island.

The mean annual rainfall is 1,930 millimetres. Most of this rain falls between November and May. February and March are usually the wettest months.

Because of the oceanic influence, the relative humidity does not vary seasonally as much as rainfall. Humidity usually ranges between 80 – 90%. Temperatures on the island vary little from month to month. The average daily maximum temperature reaches a high of 28° Celsius in April and the average daily minimum temperature falls to 22° Celsius in August.

Safety
Good holiday, first and foremost, means a safe holiday. If you intend to travel to Georgia, relax about safety issues. According to Numbeo 2016 report, Georgia is the safest country in Europe and 6th in the world following South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong and Taiwan.

You will feel complete safety while traveling around the country. Here we say that the guest is the gift from God, so Georgians will do their best to treat you with great hospitality. Friendly Georgians are always willing to assist you. You won’t need to take extra care of your pocket and handbag. Relax, and enjoy your precious time in this beautiful country.

No one will disturb you here, though, just in case, Georgian policemen are at your service 24/7. According to the recent research, police is one of the most trusted institutions in the country and about 74% of the population trust it. Georgia is ahead of European countries by this indicator. So be calm, relax and enjoy all the best things that country has to offer. We are waiting for you!

Gastronomy
Nothing tells you more about the spirit and culture of a country than its cuisine. Georgian national dishes are amongst the best in the world for their diversity and taste. Each historical province of the country has its own distinct culinary tradition that was refining for centuries. Especially distinguished and unique are Imeretian, Megrelian and Kakhetian cuisines.

While meat plays an important part in Georgian cuisine, very close attention is also paid to the locally produced vegetables, fruit and greens. Traditional dishes made of their accurate combination first attract you, then astonish you and eventually it all ends with gastronomic shock.

The secret of this taste is Georgian soil: natural extension of a fertile, mineral-rich landscape fed by the pure waters of the Caucasus Mountains. It seems that the nature harmoniously lives in products, that are being used to create unique, delicious, and organic Georgian dishes.

Traditional Georgian feast is called “Supra”. The list of dishes that will charm you at the “Supra” is endless, yet some of them should be distingished:

Khachapuri – Georgian cheese bread, also known abroad as a Georgian pizza. You can try different sorts of khachapuri in various regions of Georgia to experience unique taste – it is just wow!

Pkhaleuli – vegetarian dishes from a variety of spiced plants and vegetables usually with a walnut paste base, similar to spinach, but each having a unique taste and seasoning.

Satsivi – chicken or turkey in a walnut sauce with garlic and spices. It is so much appetizing that no diet will resist!

Khinkali – Georgian national dish. Juicy meat dumplings are made to be eaten by hand using a special technique that can be learned only here. It is so delicious that you have to visit Georgia just to try khinkali!

Mtsvadi – Georgian barbeque, meat grilled to perfection over a grape vinewood fire with bay leaf and fresh pomegranate juice squeezed over it.

Churchkhela – walnuts on a thread repeatedly dipped into a hot grape mixture, then hung to dry and harden in natural conditions. Churchkhela is Georgian national dessert.

Wine
Hectares of vineyards, Rtveli (Georgian harvesting) accompanied with polyphonic singing and clay vessels (Kvevri) full of wine – this is Georgia. Wine is everything here – everyone loves it. Every family will treat you with their own wine with great pleasure and pride. Vineyard is a sacred place for Georgians and winemaking – our beloved tradition. Country with population around 3.5 million, yearly produces approximately 150 million liters of wine.

Georgia has 8000 years of unbroken tradition of winemaking, which is proved by multiple archeological excavations and historical facts. The modern world recognized Georgia as the homeland of wine. According to one version, English word – wine derived from Georgian “ghvino”.

It is worth mentioning that Qvevri wine making method was included in UNESCO’s intangible cultural heritage list in 2013. In Georgia, there are more than 500 different endemic species of grape, from which the best quality wine is made. Special and unique Georgian wines are: Saperavi, Rkatsiteli, Kindzmarauli, Tsitska-Tsolikauri, Khvanchkara, Tvishi, Usakhelauri, Ojaleshi, etc.

Religion
As one of the first countries in the world to convert to Christianity in just the 4th century AD today Georgia is distinguished for full religious freedom and tolerance. Here for centuries people of different faith and religion have coexisted peacefully.

Majority of the population is Christian orthodox. Georgia is one of the few countries where orthodox and catholic churches, synagogoues and mosques are built side by side.

In all regions of Georgia you will see ancient Christian churches stretched high in the sky that count thousands of years and some of that are in a list of UNESCO world heritage sites. Below are the most significant cultural monuments:

Svetitskhoveli Cathedral is Georgian architechtoral monument of XI century, located in 20 km from Tbilisi in a historical town Mtskheta. This place is especially mystical and holy, as according to the legend the Shroud of Christ is buried under the cathedral.

Jvari Monastery is both the church and the monastery of VI century that is situated on the East of Mtskheta. View of Mtkvari and Aragvi confluence stretched from here is one of the most beautiful and astonishing views in Georgia.

Bagrati Cathedral was built in XI century and resisted many invasions since then thanks to its special solid construction. Being located on the Ukimerioni Hill in Kutaisi Bagrati Cathedral is still proudly standing on the guard of the whole city.

Gelati monastery is the jewel of Georgian architecture, built near Kutaisi in XII century by the legendary King of Georgia – David the Builder. In Middle Ages Gelati monastery was the main center of religion and education.

History
History of Georgia is the history of struggling for freedom. Nearly all the largest empires in the world attempted to possess this land. But after all, we amazingly managed to survive and preserve our independence. There were times when several huge invaders at the same time struggled for having influence over Georgia. The reason of all these wars was strategic location of Georgia between Europe and Asia on the major trade artery – Silk Road.

Dmanisi Hominid
Dmanisi archaeological excavations prove the fact of ancient humans (hominids) living on the territory of Georgia. Human skull recently discovered here is 1.8 million years old and the most ancient on the territory of Europe. It means that Georgia is the homeland of the first European.

Greek era
The first signs of the state of Georgia emerged in II BC at the Black Sea coast. Wealthy Kingdom of Kolkheti ruled by legendary king Aieti was situated here. Heroes of the famous Greek myth “Argonauts” visited Georgia in this very period to grab the Golden Fleece. This story is connected to the method of gold mining in Georgia. In Mountain Rivers Georgians used sheep fleece to clean water from sludge and obtain gold.

The Romans
After the Romans pushed into Persia, they set their eyes on Georgia sending their famed general Pompey in 66 BC to conquer the country. Remains of the stone bridge built by Pompey still exist in Georgia. Soon all of Caucasia fell under Roman rule, but it did not last long, and by the I century BC Georgia was considered as an ally not a subject state.

The Adoption of Christianity
Georgia was the second country in the world to adopt Christianity as a state religion. Saint Nino of Cappadocia introduced Christianity to the Georgian people in 337 AD. Georgia’s early adoption of Christianity had huge implications on how the future would have developed for Georgians, as it permanently oriented the country to the West, to Rome, and later to Europe as a whole.

Arab Domination
In 645 Arab armies swept northwards through Iran and captured Tbilisi forcing country to pay tribute. By the X century Arab rule in Western Georgia had weakened and the Byzantine Empire was rapidly expanding. Byzantine Emperor Basil II was able to retake most of Georgia and unite east and west as one nation.

David the Builder
Despite its turbulent history Georgia managed to become the strong kingdom by the XII century. This period is linked to the name of David the Builder (1089-1125), legendary king who initiated the country’s Golden Age. After implementation of political, economic and educational reforms, in 1096 he was able to stop paying tribute to the Turks and defeated them completely in August 12, 1121 with the 50 000 army against 300 000. Human treatment of Muslims during this period set a standard for tolerance that was unique in those times and was a hallmark of his enlightened rule.

King Tamar
Georgia reached its zenith during the rule of Queen Tamar (she was referred as King because of her incredible power). She was the grand-daughter of David the Builder, and during her reign Georgians enjoyed a cultural renaissance, evidenced by building churches and monasteries as well as developing art of frescos and ornamental design. In this period also arose literary tradition. Genius Georgian poet Shota Rustaveli dedicated his epic poem “The Knight in the Panther Skin” to the Queen Tamar.

Mongols
Georgia was the first European country to be conquered by Mongols. Under the leadership of great warlord Tamerlane, Mongol army invaded Georgia eight times during 1386-1403 years. Mongol invasion seriously damaged the Georgian state and the further development of the nation.

Persian and Ottoman Invasions
In XVI century Georgia found itself trapped between two expanding empires, the Ottoman Turks from the West and the Persians from the East. Both of them struggled to invade Georgia. The fall of Constantinople and the corresponding change in trade routes greatly weakened Georgia and endangered its future. The Shah of Persia invaded Georgia four times, conquered Tbilisi and captured numerous people. Eventually the kingdom was divided into two spheres of influence of both empires.

The Russian Empire
It took Georgia a lot of time to recover and only in the XVIII century country was able to become independent again. Though shortly afterwards due to the new threat coming from Iran and Ottoman empires in 1783 Georgia had to sign a treaty with Russia making Georgia a protectorate of the Russian Empire.

Existence as a part of Russia ended up in a declaration of independency of Georgia in 1918. Georgia existed for 3 years as an independent state before in 1921 it was annexed by the Red Army of the Soviet Union. Despite numerous historical obstacles and wars, exhausted country managed to survive and in May 26th, 1991 eventually gained its independence. This day is the major national holiday of the country.

This small country managed to stand through all the difficulties that befell on it for thousands of years. Unanimity, faith and struggle brought results and today Georgia is an independent sovereign state. We are proud of our history, of every day, spent on this blessed land since we are one of the most ancient nations – the nation who loved, loves and will always love freedom!

Culture
You are about to discover a country of diverse culture, rich history and unique artifacts. Georgia is home to the first human outside of Africa who settled down here about 2 million years ago. Georgia is an ancient country at the crossroads of the Eastern and Western civilizations, where the European and Asian way of life and traditions merge for thousands of years. Indeed this country has a lot of amazing things to show you and tell you!

It is impossible to visit Georgia and not get charmed by its traditional architecture, that counts more than 1300 years. On the streets of the city, river canyons and mountain peaks you will see ancient unique domed temples painted with frescoes created based on Bible.

If you are looking for something very special and mystical, you should definitely visit the monastery complexes carved into the rocks:

Vardzia is a monastery complex built in the 12th century, which consists of churches carved into the rock, cells, secret tunnels and halls. This is one of the most eye-catching tourist attractions of the country.

Davit Gareja is a complex of monastery caves of the feudal era carved into the rock. Its walls are painted with ancient frescoes.

Uplistsikhe is a cave town. Yes, exactly the cave town and one of the most ancient settlements of the Caucasus. Caves, carved into a massive rock are firmly standing for thousands of years and even today keep their old appearance.

Georgian polyphonic music is globally prominent for its special harmonious sonority. Since 2001, Georgian polyphonic music is among UNESCO’s world intangible cultural heritage list. The polyphonic structure of this music has not changed over the centuries and still can be heard across the country – in the city and in rural areas, in the churches and monasteries and during various cultural events. Georgian traditional “Sufra” (table, feast) is unimaginable without this music. This sonority is the part of Georgians’ genetic code and most accurately expresses the character of this nation.

Rhythm, dynamics, geometric order, discipline, destructive energy, simultaneous teamwork and individualism – This is Georgian folk dance. Georgian dance embodies the history of Georgia – fighting, development, peace, love, amazing synthesis of feast and sadness. Fast and precise solo roles are shifted by calm, but dynamic group choreography, sword dance – by light and earnest women dance roles. For a foreign eye, Georgian dances remind action scenes from Hollywood, saturated by special effects. In reality, all this is incredibly realistic. Georgian folk dances are highly appreciated all around the world, therefore, Georgian ensembles with their show programs and concerts, visit numerous countries throughout the year.

Qvevri
There is a distinctive winemaking technology: grape juice together with the seeds and skin is buried under the ground in clay vessels called “Qvevri”

Unique Alphabet
Unique alphabet – one of 14 independent alphabets in the world.

The First Human Civilization
The first human civilization outside of Africa has been discovered in Georgia (the remains of that settlement are 1, 75 million years old)

Tusheti
When it comes to the height of its mountains and variety of available treks, Georgia’s High Caucasus offers a lot of options to the mountaineers.

The Highest Permanent Settlements In Europe
Tushetian village Bochorna and Svanetian commune Ushguli are Europe’s highest permanently inhabited settlements

Botanical Garden
It is one of the most ecologically diverse countries in the world, with climatic zones ranging from subtropical and high alpine to semi-desert.

Heritage Sights
Three cultural monuments which are included into UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

Ski Resorts
Georgia is a paradise for freeriders and heli-skiers

Cradle Of Wine
Winemaking has been practiced in Georgia for over 8,000 years.

Georgia becomes more and more popular among tourists not because you can try delicious food there or visit ancient sightseeing but also for numerous entertainment options which are available there, such as Iconic clubs, archetypal pubs and bars, traditional wine cellars, delicious restaurants, You can try your luck at casinos as well.

Electronic music became popular in Tbilisi decade ago and now the city is among world’s top destinations for clubbing. A new generation of Georgians successfully transformed old soviet buildings into the mind-blowing venues for partying. World media often compares Tbilisi to Berlin. Each weekend you will find top rated artists from mainly from Europe and also from other countries in local clubs. The most iconic clubs and venues for electronic music lovers of Tbilisi are Bassiani, Mtkvarze, Cafe Gallery, Khidi, Tivi, Elektrowerk and etc. Each of these places are unique with their individual spirit, own back-story and all of them are very impressive. You get the updates from them on their Facebook pages and you can easily buy tickets online.

Pop and rock music, karaoke and a lot of cover concerts are taking place in Shardeni and Perovskaya areas of Tbilisi. There are a lot of bars that tourists like to visit. The locals prefer to hang out in places like Fabrika.

Autumn and spring bring festive gastronomic experiences at New Wine Festival, Cheese Festival, Tbilisoba and many other events, where you can get closer to the culture and taste local cuisine. Visiting indoor water parks, playing board games or quests, going to cinema and doing shopping are good options for rainy days.

Theatre and movie festivals, as well as international Tbilisi Jazz Festival are traditionally held in November. Check out the website with tickets: tkt.ge, biletebi.ge, eventer.ge.

Winter in Georgia reduces the temperature, but not fun. You can visit local restaurants for authentic Georgian food that you will never forget. Bars and clubs of Tbilisi become crowded even more. Of course, after active nightlife you need to recover.

There are places where you get high class spa care based on natural Georgian wines and well known curative waters (spa resorts around Kvareli and Borjomi are famous for that). Beside this, you can try bathing in thermal water, balneotherapy, classic spa treatment, and last but not least don’t miss a chance to visit the famous sulfur baths of Tbilisi and balneologic center next to them.

 

Events & Festivals
Incentives to visit Georgia become more and more various and all of them are impressive. World rugby u20 championship has just been held in Tbilisi and Kutaisi. While, Georgia, which were selected by UEFA on 26 January 2015, will soon host the 2017 UEFA European Under-19 Championship. All European eyes on Tbilisi in November, cause its Eurovision Junior 2017 song contest here. Those who enjoy food, wine, folk dances and songs should consider coming to Art Gene in July, Cheese festival and “Tbilisoba” in October. New Wine festival should also be noted as one of the most attended event during the year.

Georgia has strengthened its position on the world map of entertainment. There’s always something cool happening here. Any weekend of the year you will definitely find some top international artists live on some stage of Tbilisi. People here hang out pretty well. Electronic music being super popular in Georgia has developed a festival culture, thus, within a short period of time, encouraged top-level music festivals such as: Gem fest in Anaklia, Sou festival in Tbilisi, 4GB festival in Tbilisi, Black Sea Jazz festival in Batumi, Tbilisi Open Air and etc. This year, Georgia will be hosting: Jamiroquai, Paul Kalkbrenner, Elton John, Martin Garrix, Steve Aoki, Boris Brejcha, Solomun, and Worakls along with other 500 popular artists from around the globe.

Looking for something special? Not a problem – enjoy different cultural events like: Theatre festival, Tbilisi international film festival, Color Fest, Photo festival “Kolga” , Ice cream festival, Street food festival, Tbilisi Fashion Week, Mercedes-Benz Fashion week and etc.

Ancient History
Millions of years ago people began to develop fertile land rich in wild animals in the territory of the modern Kazakhstan. First ancestors of Homo sapiens – Pithecanthropus and Neanderthal are known to have settled in the mountains of Karatau (Zhambyl region) and Mangystau and northern Balkhash. Moreover, it is confirmed by archeologists that tribes in northwest Kazakhstan domesticated camel, wild shepherd dog, mountain sheep, mastered the horse breeding, learned to make various items from copper, stone, bone and clay as early as in IV-III millennium BC.

In the Bronze Age (XVII -VIII century BC) tribes living on the territory of Kazakhstan practiced cattle breeding, agriculture and metallurgy, lived in large villages, surrounded by walls and moats (the prototype of the cities), and were famous for their brave warriors.

Later, the territory was settled by Sakas (Scythians). These tribes were nomadic and semi-nomadic, some of them practiced agriculture (in the valleys of the rivers Syrdarya, Shu and Talas). Sakas were famous for being excellent horsemen. They are among the first to have mastered the technique of shooting a bow at full gallop. In addition, Sakas had their own written language, mythology and engaged art. The style in which Saka painters and jewelers created their works, subsequently were named “animal style” by historians.

Empress Tomyris is one of the most famous Saka rulers, who fought against Persian invaders, namely Cyrus the Great, subsequently winning his army and executing him.

A Saka warrior, clothes of which were covered with golden sheets, was first found in Esik mound by archeologists along with 4000 golden ornaments and was called Altyn Adam or the Golden Man. Later, three more of similar burials were discovered.
In the II century BC, the Xiongnu Empire, the lands of which stretched from Manchuria in the east to the Pamir mountains in the west started to split and one of its parts moved to the Kazakhstan territory, thus influencing the population, lifestyle, etc.

History of the I millennium
In the middle of the I-st millennium the ancient Turkic tribal union started to be formed on the expanse of the Mongolian mountains to the Caspian Sea, which ultimately lead to the emergence of statehood.

In 551, the first turkic state formed in this region, known as Turkic Khanate. This fact contributed to the development of crafts and trade. Formation of the Turkic khanate had a positive impact on the functioning of the Asia-Europe trade route, historians now refer to as the Great Silk Road, as well as the construction of the first cities in the steppes, such as Chirik-Rabat, Otrar, Syganak, Ispijab, Taraz and Balasagun. The cities were located along the flow of the rivers and were important locations of the Silk Road.

During this period many turkic states were replacing each other one after another: Turgesh, Karluk, Karakhanid, Kipshak, Oguz, etc. Also, Arabs introduced the Islamic religion to the turkic tribes, as well as the inherent model of writing. Over time, the Arabic script is almost completely replaced the traditional ancient Turkic runic script.

Golden Horde
In 1218 Genghis Khan’s troops invaded the territory of Kazakhstan and destroyed the cities like Otrar, Syganak, Ashnas, etc. At first nomads provided fierce resistance, but then many nations lay down their arms voluntarily or forcibly and joined the Genghis Khan army.

After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire was divided into several independent states.
Eastern Dasht-i-Kipchak (the territyro of Kazakhstan), part of the territory of Khorezm and Western Siberia became part of the Golden Horde – the state created by Batu (grandson of Genghis Khan). The vast majority of the Horde was representatives of the Turkic tribes, such as the Kipchak, Kangly, Naiman, and Kerayit Konyrat.

Fateful year for the rulers of the Golden Horde was in 1391. This year, Tamerlane, also known as “iron Timur”, defeated the army of the Horde, and the once mighty state split into two parts: the western – the Ak-Orda and eastern – Kok-Orda. The latter, in turn, was divided into two wings: Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate.

Kazakh Khanate
Tired from the tough policy of the Uzbek Khanate, Janibek and Kerey sultans left Syrdarya steppes with their auls in 1460. They moved to Zhetisu (Almaty region) where in 1465 created Kazakh Khanate and started to expand their boundaries after the death of Uzbek Khanate’s khan, which over time reached the territory from Irtysh to Zhaik rivers.

During the reign of Tauke Khan, Zhety Zhargy the code of laws of the Kazakh Khanate was adopted. Prominent public figures, scientists and thinkers – Tole bi, bi and Kazybek Aiteke bi participated in its preparation.

In the XVIII century, Kazakh Khanate was weakened under the onslaught of Jungars, but retained its territorial division into three Juz – Senior, Middle and Younger. Despite the military power of the enemy, in separate battles Kazakh soldiers were able to inflict considerable damage to Junggar army. However, understanding that without support from the outside, fighting the invaders was more and more difficult every year, Khan Abulhair of the Younger Juz in 1730 addressed the Russian Empress Anna Ivanovna with a proposal to establish a military alliance against Jungars. But the Empress did not support this initiative, offering to answer protectorate from Russia. Unlike the Younger Juz, the process of joining the Senior and Middle Juzes to Russian Empire, stretched for many years.

Along with the positive moments, resulting from joing Russian Empire, e.g. solving security issues, and receiving investments for constructing roads and factories, there also were negative consequences, such as changing the life of Kazakh nomadic tribes, losing much of their best pastures and elimination of Khan ruling. These and other negative changes caused discontent in the Kazakh society, which subsequently resulted in the people’s liberation uprising. The most famous of them were the Peasant’s War, or Pugachev rebellion (1773 -1775), the anti-feudal and anti-colonial movement of the Kazakhs Younger Juz under the leadership of Syrym Datuly (1783 – 1797), the uprising of the poor in Western Kazakhstan lead by Isatai Taimanuly and Makhambet Utemisuly (1836 – 1838), etc.

Kazakhstan during Soviet Period
After the October Revolution, setting up of the Soviet authority in Kazakhstan completed in March 1918. The capital of Kazakh Autonomous Social Soviet Republic was Kyzylorda, and later was moved to Almaty.

In the late 30s the process of industrialization began in the country, which allowed Kazakhstan to become one of the largest industrial regions of the USSR. Over time, Kazakhstan has become a major supplier of zinc, titanium, magnesium, tin, phosphorus, chromium, silver and molybdenum for the needs of the defense industry and technical SSSR. However, harsh policy of the Soviet rulers has led to the reduction of population due to famine in 1930s, mass repression, etc.

With the beginning of Nazi aggression, over 400 factories from the European part of the country were evacuated into Kazakhstan. There were built new cities and workers’ settlements, factories and mines. During the WWII 500 Kazakhs became Heroes of the Soviet Union and four of them (Talgat Begeldinov, Leonid Beda, Ivan Pavlov and Sergey Lugansky) were twice awarded Hero of the Soviet Union.

In 1955 the construction of the military polygon of Baikonur for ballistic missile tests began in Kazakhstan. Subsequently, it has become the main spaceport of the planet. After more than half a century, Baikonur remains one of the leading space centers, annually carrying out dozens of manned rocket launches.

In addition, in the post-war years in Kazakhstan the largest polygon in the world was built near the town of Semipalatinsk (Semey), designed to test the latest models of nuclear and atomic weapons. The experiments have caused significant harm to the ecosystem of the Semipalatinsk region. Therefore, in 1989, activists of the anti-nuclear movement “Nevada – Semipalatinsk demanded the elimination of the polygon and succeeded.

One more important event in the modern history of Kazakhstan, is a large-scale agricultural campaign designed at developing of virgin and fallow lands. During the virgin lands development years, tons of grain was produced in Kazakhstan. As a result of the republic became one of the largest grain producers in the world.

Independent Kazakhstan
After the collapse of the USSR, Kazakhstan declared its independence. This historical event took place on December 16, 1991, the first countries to recognize the independence of the newly proclaimed republic, were Turkey, the United States and China.
2 January 1992 Kazakhstan became a member of the OSCE. In the same year the republic was adopted in the United Nations.
15 November 1993 Kazakhstan introduced its national currency – tenge.
20 October 1997 – the capital of Kazakhstan was moved from Almaty to Astana (then called Akmola).

Kazakhs have always revered and highly valued their national customs and traditions. It is almost impossible to describe all the traditions followed by Kazakh people in one article, thus a brief introduction to Kazakh beliefs and customs is given below.

The main tradition of Kazakhs, which eventually transformed into a feature of national character, is hospitality. In the Kazakh society, there is an unofficial law voiced in ancient times, which says “Meet a guest as the God’s messenger”.

Hospitality is considered a sacred duty in the Kazakh society. At all times, the steppe inhabitants did their best to please their guest. Therefore, each traveller knew that he or she would be welcomed anywhere in the Kazakh land.

Respect for the elderly is another positive feature of Kazakhs. Traditionally, a child from early childhood is taught to be moderate and honest when dealing with older, wiser and life experienced people.

However, the above mentioned national identities that served as a basis for the occurrence of generalized rules and principles of public relations (tradition), fortunately, are confined not only to representatives of the Kazakh people. Therefore, we offer to your attention a list of basic and authentic customs, which are widespread in the Kazakh society.

1. Traditions and customs associated with the guest reception
Travellers in Kazakhstan are most likely to be encountered with the traditions, associated with guest reception. Here are some examples of them:
Konakasy – a custom associated with treating of a guest. As mentioned above, Kazakh people since ancient times have been famous for their hospitality. Kazakhs always reserve the tastiest food for guests. Guests are divided into three types: “arnayy konak” is a specially invited guest, “kudayy konak” – a random stranger (uninvited), “kydyrma konak” – an unexpected guest. All these guests, despite of their type are offered a rich table – Konakasy.

Konakkade – a tradition under which a host has a right to ask a guest to sing a song or play a musical instrument (of course, as long as a guest is known for his or her talent), thus ensuring some fun and joy during the feast.

Erulik – if new settlers came to a village erulik was arranged in their honour, i.e. a small celebration that allowed newcomers to quickly adapt to the new location. Also, the custom erulik includes assistance in settling of the newcomers, when neighbours provide them with firewood, drinking water, etc. for the time being.

Toy dastarkhan – a special form of celebration, organized for holiday or during it. Sports competitions, music, singing competitions (aitys) and horse riding competitions are organised in addition to the gatherings during Toy dastarkhan. Very often, dishes of Kazakh national cuisine are served during such occasions.

2. Traditions and customs associated with gift giving
Guests are very often have to receive or give presents; in addition, there are often times, when gifts should be given in some special occasions according to the traditions. Some examples are given below:
Suyіnshі – a custom according to which a traveller or any other person who brought home a good message (news) receives a valuable gift from the owners in gratitude. Sometimes before telling good news a person says ‘Suyunshi’ or ‘what would you give me for a Suyinshi?’, thus implying that he or she has something great to tell.

“At mingizip shapan zhabu” is a high honour. According to the tradition, a respected visitor, who may be a poet (akin), a hero, warrior (batir) or other very respected man receives a gift from local residents: a horse and a splendid shapan (robe of camel’s hair with a cotton lining) in recognition of their merit.
Baygazy – a tradition of giving a gift to a person, who acquired a new valuable thing.

3. Traditions and customs associated with mutual aid
Helping each other has always been highly valued by Kazakhs and is very important in a Kazakh community. Therefore, there are a number of traditions, which are associated with mutual aid. Some of them are listed below:

Asar – a family, which has to perform an urgent and sometimes a hard work, has a right to ask relatives, friends and neighbours for assistance. At the end of the work, a rich table is laid as a gratitude for those, who helped.

Zhylu – a tradition associated with the provision of material, moral and financial assistance to people affected by natural disasters (fire, flood, etc.). All supporters, not only relatives are entitled to help the victims. Many things can be given as donations – livestock, building materials, clothing, money, etc.

Belkoterer – a tradition to treat the elderly. Delicious and most importantly – soft foods such as kazy, zhent, cottage cheese are cooked for the elderly. Typically, this responsibility rests on children or close relatives, the less likely neighbours. Belkoterer tradition is an example of caring for the elderly.

4. Traditions and customs associated with birth and upbringing of the child
Traditions, connected with the birth of children and their upbringing, apparently play a very important role in many cultures. Just a brief description of such rituals and traditions followed by Kazakh families, is given below. All of these rituals are usually followed by celebrations.
Shіldehana – a celebration that is associated with childbirth.

Besіkke salu, besik toy – a holiday, hosted when the newborn is put to a cradle – besik. As a rule, it is organized on the 3rd-5th day after dropout of umbilical cord of the kid.

Kyrkynan shygaru – a ritual performed on the fortieth day after birth that includes bathing baby in 40 tablespoons of water, and the first haircut and nail cut and other rituals.

Tusau kesu – a day when the baby took his first steps the oldest and most respected people is invited to perform a ceremony of Tusau keser. Then he or she should cut the special ropes, beset baby’s legs, in order to ensure that in future the kid could walk nicely and run fast.

Sundetke otyrgyzu is a rite of circumcision. The ceremony is held when a boy is 5-7 years old. A big festival to which all the relatives and friends are invited is organized after this. On the occasion of Sundetke otyrgyzu guests usually make generous gifts to the hero of the occasion and his parents.

5. Traditions and customs related to marriage
One of unique Kazakh traditions related to marriages is that the marriage between relatives up to the seventh generation is prohibited. Such taboo helps to prevent blood mixing and, consequently, benefit to the health of future offspring.
Traditionally, sequence of the ceremonies and rituals related to a marriage is the following.

Any wedding ceremony in the Kazakh society is anticipated by kudalyk (matchmaking). Before the wedding, matchmakers come to bride’s house. Their task is to agree with the closest relatives of a girl on her marriage. During courtship, father of the bride receives gifts from the guests that serve as a deposit.

If negotiations are successful, the father, in turn, presents a coat to the main matchmaker. This custom is called “Shege Sapa”. Preparation of “kuyruk bauyr” – a delicious dish from the liver and broad tail fat also testifies to the successful completion of courtship.

The next stage of the ceremony is sendoff of the bride Kyz uzatu. In the evening before the Kyz uzatu matchmakers come to the bride’s house again. Number of visitors should not be even (5-7). Early in the morning, the bride with matchmakers is sent to the groom’s house.

Solemn ceremony of meeting the bride in the groom’s house is called kelіn tusіru. The main element of kelіn tүsіru is a traditional performance of a song of instructions and wishes – Betashar.

In ancient times when the Kazakhs practiced a nomadic lifestyle, dwelling (yurt) of newlyweds was located behind the house of groom’s parents. According to the tradition, the first threshold of the yurt was to be crossed by the bride, and be sure to do it with the right foot. Also during the wedding ceremony, the couple must drink together a bowl of water with dissolved sugar and salt. This ritual is considered as a guarantor of a happy family life.

6. The most ancient traditions of Kazakh people
Ashamayga mingizu is a ritual whereby a 6-7-years-old boy was supposed to be given a horse and whip. Such a ritual is a kind of “initiation”, having proclaimed that the child is a jigit. On this day, elders blessed the young rider and parents organized a small celebration in honour of their son.

Bastangy is an ancient analog of contemporary youth parties. Traditionally, these celebrations are conducted immediately after departure of adults. During Bastangy, guests express only one wish that the travel of the adults would be accompanied by luck.

Kazakh language
Kazakh culture is also represented in Kazakh language and literature.
Kazakh is a Turkic language and is similar to other Turkic languages, such as Ozbek, Kyrgyz, Turkish, etc. It is agglutinative language with a vowel harmony, like other Turkic languages.

Kazakh is written using Cyrillic alphabet, though Kazakhs, living in China still use Arabic-derived alphabet as 100 years ago. Kazakh was also written in Latin alphabet in 1920s, thus being changed several times in XX century. Nowadays a switch to Latin alphabet is being discussed.
Russian is also widely used in Kazakhstan and is spoken almost everywhere.

Kazakh literature
Kazakh language is very poetic and rich in metaphors, which are used not only in poems and novels, but also in everyday language of people.

Highly poetic nature of Kazakh language has been perfect for the development of Kazakh poetry from ancient times.
Easy to remember Kazakh poetry was delivered from ‘father to son’ from centuries to centuries, sometimes slightly modified, sometimes with creation of completely different variants, with happier ending than in the original, etc…

One of the examples of such folklore are epic poems and love poems. These are true stories of love and braveness of heroes, in the form of long poems, which generally reflect history of Kazakh people. Many of them are based on true stories: e.g. a mausoleum of Kozy Korpesh and Bayan Sulu (Kazakh Romeo and Juliette) in East Kazakhstan is a monument to their eternal love and a proof of their beautiful love story.

XIX-XX centuries were probably the period, when the most beautiful poems and novels were created by Abay Kunanbayuly, Magzhan Zhumabayuly, Zhusipbek Aymautuly, Shakerim Kudayberdiuly, and many others.

Abay Kunanbayuly (1845-1904) is a Kazakh poet, writer, composer, philosopher and translator. Abay’s creations open a new stage of Kazakh realistic literature. Main topics of his works are the call to goodness, knowledge, culture, honest labour, justice, love for people and native land. The winter residence of Abay in East Kazakhstan region is now a museum and is visited by many tourists every year.

Prose, or novels emerged as a new kind of word art in the beginning of XX century, with the emergence of written literature. The first novel in Kazakh is considered Unhappy Zhamal by Mirzhakyp Dulatuly.

Political situation of the period, culture, way of life, people’s beliefs were reflected in the novels, written in this period and many of them were forbidden during by the Soviet regime.

One of the writers of this period was Saken Seifullin. Saken Seifulin Museum in the old centre of Astana displays the history of his life and those who lived during the difficult years in the beginning of XX century.

South Korea to 1961
The First Republic
The First Republic, established in August 1948, adopted a presidential system, and Syngman Rhee was subsequently elected its first president. South Korea also adopted a National Security Law, which effectively prohibited groups that opposed the state or expressions of support for North Korea. Rhee was reelected in August 1952 while the country was at war. Even before the outbreak of the Korean War (1950–53), there had been a serious conflict between Rhee and the opposition-dominated National Assembly that had elected him in 1948. The dispute involved a constitutional amendment bill that the opposition introduced in an attempt to oust Rhee by replacing the presidential system with a parliamentary cabinet system. The bill was defeated, but the dispute continued at Pusan, the wartime provisional capital, where the National Assembly was reconvened.

When the opposition introduced another amendment bill in favour of a parliamentary cabinet system, Rhee in 1952 countered by pushing through a bill that provided for the popular election of the president. Later, in 1954, Rhee succeeded in forcing the National Assembly, then dominated by the ruling party, to pass an amendment that exempted him from what was then a two-term limit on the presidency. Under the revised constitution, Rhee ran successfully for his third term of office in May 1956. His election for the fourth time, in March 1960, was preceded by a period of tension and violence and was followed by accusations that the election had been fraudulent. Massive student demonstrations took place that culminated in a major event on April 19 in which many demonstrators died. Rhee resigned under pressure six days later and fled to exile in Hawaii, where he died in 1965 at age 90.

The Second Republic
The Second Republic, which adopted a parliamentary cabinet system, lasted only nine months. A figurehead president was elected by both houses of the legislature, and power was shifted to the office of Prime Minister Chang Myŏn, who was elected by the lower house by a narrow margin of 10 votes.

The Chang government made some strenuous efforts to initiate reforms. In a society laden with social and economic ills accumulated over a long period of time, however, it failed to cope with the unstable situation created by a violent political change. Rampant political factionalism only made the situation worse. With the ultimate source of authority now vested in the office of the prime minister, all factions, conservative and moderate, engaged in constant maneuvering to win over a group of independents in order to form a majority in the legislature. Before Chang had time to launch a full program of economic reform, the leadership of the ruling Democratic Party was crippled by factional strife within its ranks.

Military rule
The 1961 coup
On May 16, 1961, the military seized power through a carefully engineered coup d’état, ushering in a new phase of postliberation Korean politics. The military junta, led by General Park Chung-Hee, took over the government machinery, dissolved the National Assembly, and imposed a strict ban on political activity. The country was placed under martial law, and the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction (SCNR), headed by Park, took the reins of government and began instituting a series of reforms.

In November 1962 the SCNR made public a constitutional amendment bill that provided for a strong president and a weak, single-chamber National Assembly. The bill was approved by a national referendum one month later. A series of events unfolded in the first half of 1963. In February Park announced that he would not take part in the civilian government to be formed later in the year if civilian political leaders chose to uphold a nine-point “political stabilization proposal.” However, as a result of bitter turbulence within the ruling junta and a chaotic situation created by the proliferation of minor political parties, Park soon changed his mind and proposed that military rule be extended for four years. The proposal met vigorous opposition from civilian political leaders, but some 160 military commanders, most of them generals, supported the extension. In April, Park, under considerable domestic and international pressure (particularly from the United States), announced a plan for holding elections toward the end of the year. Park was named presidential candidate of the newly formed Democratic Republican Party (DRP) in late May.

The Third Republic
The election for president of the Third Republic took place on October 15, 1963. Park narrowly defeated the opposition candidate, Yun Po-Sŏn, former president (1960–62) of the Second Republic, who had remained in office as a figurehead at the request of the junta to provide constitutional continuity for the military government. When political activity was permitted to resume, Yun led the mustering opposition groups and became the presidential candidate of the Civil Rule Party. In May 1967 Park was elected to his second term of office, and the DRP won a large majority in the National Assembly. Members of the opposition New Democratic Party (NDP), whose head was the twice-defeated Yun, claimed fraud and refused for some time to take their seats in the National Assembly.

During his second term, President Park faced the constitutional provision that limited the president to two consecutive four-year terms. Amid extensive political turmoil created by the demonstrations of opposition politicians and students, the DRP members of the legislature passed a constitutional amendment that would make a president eligible for three consecutive four-year terms. The amendment was approved by a national referendum in October 1969. In the presidential elections held in April 1971, Park defeated Kim Dae-Jung of the NDP; however, the NDP made substantial gains, especially in major urban areas, securing 89 seats in the National Assembly election as against 113 seats won by the ruling DRP.

The Yushin order (Fourth Republic)
In December 1971, shortly after his inauguration to a third presidential term, Park declared a state of national emergency, and 10 months later (October 1972) he suspended the constitution and dissolved the legislature. A new constitution, which would permit the reelection of the president for an unlimited number of six-year terms, was promulgated in December, launching the Fourth Republic.

The institutional framework of the Yushin (“Revitalization Reform”) order departed radically from the Third Republic. The National Conference for Unification (NCU) was created “to pursue peaceful unification of the fatherland.” The conference was to be a body of between 2,000 and 5,000 members who were directly elected by the voters for a six-year term. The president was the chairman of the conference. Until 1987 the NCU was charged with the power to elect the president, and under this arrangement, Park was elected without opposition in 1972 and was reelected in 1978.

Political unrest increased following the August 1973 kidnapping from Tokyo to Seoul of Kim Dae-Jung—who had been conducting an antigovernment campaign in the United States and Japan—by agents of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA; now the National Intelligence Service). From August 1978 the opposition movement became stronger. The expulsion from the National Assembly of the new NDP leader Kim Young-Sam in early October 1979 escalated what had already been growing political tensions between the government and opposition leaders during the year into a major national crisis. Antigovernment riots broke out in Pusan and Masan and were suppressed by government troops. The crisis culminated on October 26, when President Park was assassinated by Kim Jae-Kyu, his longtime friend and director of the KCIA. Prime Minister Choi Kyu-Hah became acting president under the Yushin constitution and was formally elected president in December by the NCU.

In the meantime, the country was placed under strict military rule by Gen. Chun Doo-Hwan. An armed uprising of students and other citizens in Kwangju in May 1980, calling for the full restoration of democracy, was ruthlessly suppressed by the military junta, with hundreds of civilian deaths. That month the military did away with all trappings of civilian government, extended martial law, again banned all political activity, and closed universities and colleges.

Restoration of civilian government
The Fifth Republic
In August 1980 Chun Doo-Hwan was elected president by the NCU. A new constitution, under which the president was limited to one seven-year term, was approved in October, ushering in the Fifth Republic. Martial law was lifted in January 1981, and in February Chun was elected president under the new constitution. As parties were again allowed to operate, a new ruling party, the Democratic Justice Party (DJP), was formed by former members of the DRP and NDP. Chun’s administration, however, had to endure a series of scandals and incidents—most notably the bombing by North Koreans in Rangoon, Burma (now Yangon, Myanmar), in October 1983 that killed several members of the South Korean government. Meanwhile, in 1980 the strongly anticommunist Ronald Reagan was elected president in the United States, ushering in closer U.S.–South Korean ties and cooler U.S.–North Korean relations.

By 1987 popular dissatisfaction with the government had become widespread. To address this crisis, Roh Tae-Woo (from 1985 the chairman of the DJP) announced a program of constitutional reforms that would restore the democratic institutions and basic civil rights that had been usurped under military rule. Chun, compelled to accept this program, oversaw the drafting of a revised constitution, which was approved by a national referendum in October. Among its principal provisions were a reduction in the presidential term from seven to five years and the direct popular election of the president. Roh, a former army general, was elected president in December and took office in February 1988. With his inauguration, a peaceful transfer of power was effected for the first time in South Korean history, and the tortuous history of the Fifth Republic came to an end.

Ethnic groups
It was long believed that the Korean people originally may have had links with the people of Central Asia, the Lake Baikal region of Siberia, Mongolia, and the coastal areas of the Yellow Sea. Tools of Paleolithic type and other artifacts found in Sokch’ang, near Kongju, are quite similar to those of the Lake Baikal and Mongolian areas. In 2017, genetic analysis of bones found in Primorye kray in Far Eastern Russia suggested that Koreans were related to a population that had inhabited that area for at least 7,700 years. The genes of these Neolithic humans were expressed alongside those of indigenous agriculturalists from Southeast Asia to produce the genetic structure of modern Koreans.

The population of South Korea is highly homogeneous; almost the entire population is ethnically Korean, and there is a small minority of ethnic Chinese permanent residents. The number of foreigners is growing, especially in the major urban areas; people from Japan, the United States (including members of the military), and China make up the largest foreign populations, although they still constitute only small fractions. Many foreign nationals are employed in business or the diplomatic corps, and tens of thousands of workers come from China and Southeast Asia.

Languages
All Koreans speak the Korean language, which is often classified as one of the Altaic languages, has affinities to Japanese, and contains many Chinese loanwords. The Korean script, known in South Korea as Hangul (Han’gŭl) and in North Korea as Chosŏn muntcha, is composed of phonetic symbols for the 10 vowels and 14 consonants. Korean often is written as a combination of Chinese ideograms and Hangul in South Korea, although the trend is toward using less Chinese. A large number of English words and phrases have crept into the language—either intact or modified by local usage—as a result of the American presence in the country since 1950.

Religion
Freedom of religion is constitutionally guaranteed in South Korea, and there is no national religion. There also is little uniformity of religious belief, a situation that often is confusing to outside observers. Historically, several religions prevailed successively: shamanism (the religious belief in gods, demons, and ancestral spirits responsive to a priest, or shaman), Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. None of these religions was abandoned, however, when one supplanted another in dominance, and all have had a role in the country’s sociocultural development. Thus, the rites of shamanism (which has existed in Korea since ancient times) are still practiced by many. The principles and social outlook of Confucianism are still much in evidence in Korean daily life and family relationships, and Buddhism remains influential—even among people who may be nominally Christian, for example. Approximately one-fourth of the population professes Christianity, with Protestants (particularly Presbyterians and Methodists), independent Christians, and Roman Catholics the largest groups. Less than one-sixth of the population is Buddhist.

Christianity is relatively new in Korea, Roman Catholic missionaries having reached the peninsula only in the late 18th century, and their Protestant counterparts a century later. Christianity has had a profound effect on the modernization of Korean society. Buddhism was first introduced in the 4th century CE and was the official religion of the Koryŏ dynasty, which began in 918. About one-sixth of the population adheres to so-called new religions. These include Wŏnbulgyo (Wŏn Buddhism), Taejonggyo (“Great Ancestral Religion”), and Ch’ŏndogyo. Ch’ŏndogyo (“Teaching of the Heavenly Way”), originally known as Tonghak (“Eastern Learning”), is a blend of Buddhism, Confucianism, Christianity, and even Daoism; it spread widely in the latter part of the 19th century. Shamanism and traditional geomancy (p’ungsu) persist, though their practices usually are limited to certain occasions, such as funerals. Confucianism was the basis of national ethics during the Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty (1392–1910); though the number of its official adherents is now small, most Korean families still follow its principles, including ancestor worship.

Cultural milieu
Shamanism, Buddhism, and Confucianism constitute the background of modern Korean culture. Since World War II, and especially after the Korean War, globalization and rapid political and economic development have had a marked effect on the country’s culture. Traditional thought, however, still plays an important role under the surface. Korea belongs historically to the Chinese cultural realm. After the Three Kingdoms period in particular, Korean culture was strongly influenced by the Chinese, although this influence was given a distinctive Korean stamp.

A number of Korean cultural sites have been named UNESCO World Heritage sites. These include the depositories for the Tripitaka Koreana (one of the most complete editions of Buddhist canonical writings in the world), located at Haein Temple, west of Taegu (designated 1995); several dolmen (stone burial monument) sites from the 1st millennium BCE in the southwestern part of the country (2000); and the volcanic island of Cheju and its lava-tube cave system (2007).

Daily life and social customs
The once-dominant Confucian culture—with its emphasis on respect for ancestors, age, and seniority—continues to influence Korean family, work, and social life, albeit to a lesser degree than in the past. In addition to other factors, such as economic status and position in a business hierarchy, age and marital status are among the determinants of relative seniority, and there is some expectation that even between social acquaintances these factors—especially age—will influence relations.

Traditional family life is much involved with rituals marking life-cycle milestones and the observation of holidays and ancestral rites. The most important passages in a person’s life are the completion of a baby’s first 100 days, one’s marriage, and one’s 61st birthday. According to traditional Korean belief, the spirits of the departed do not leave the earth for several generations; thus, deceased parents and grandparents are still considered part of the family. Ancestral rites (cherye) are performed to honour them on death anniversaries and on major holidays. Two of the most important holidays are Sŏllal (Lunar New Year) and Chusŏk (harvest moon festival, often referred to as the Korean Thanksgiving), both observed according to the lunar calendar. These are marked by the gathering of families in the ancestral hometown or at the home of the head of the family. Traditional elements of holiday celebrations include the formal, respectful greeting of elders, the preparation and eating of special foods such as specific types of rice cakes (ddŏk), and the wearing of traditional dress (hanbok).

Hanbok was the everyday dress of Koreans for thousands of years before the opening of the country to the West. Western dress has supplanted the hanbok almost everywhere, but even urban dwellers commonly still wear it on special occasions such as important family meetings, holidays, weddings, and funerals. Women’s and girls’ formal hanbok consists of several layers of undergarments under a colourful, long billowing skirt and short jacket held closed with a long tie. The men’s and boys’ version consists of full-legged pants and a long, wide-sleeved jacket. There are different hanbok for special occasions, such as weddings, babies’ birthdays, and 61st-birthday celebrations.

Food is an important part of Korean cultural identity. In the diets of even the most Westernized urban dwellers, traditional Korean cuisine, which emphasizes grains—especially rice—and fresh vegetables, continues to occupy a dominant role even amid the popularity of pizza, hamburgers, sushi, Chinese food, and other foreign dishes. A Korean meal generally consists of rice, soup or stew, and a number of side dishes, almost invariably among them kimchi, or pickled vegetables. Such is the importance of kimchi in the national diet that an estimated 160 or more varieties have been identified, and there is a museum in Seoul dedicated to the dish. The most common type is the spicy paech’u (Chinese cabbage) kimchi. Although many families today buy most of their kimchi in supermarkets, many others still make their own. The traditional practice of kimjang, in which villages and families devoted several days in the autumn to preparing the winter supply of kimchi, is celebrated in such annual kimjang festivals as that held in the southwestern city of Kwangju. Other popular Korean dishes are bibimbap (rice mixed with vegetables, egg, a spicy sauce, and sometimes meat), jjajangmyŏn (noodles in a black-bean sauce), pulgogi (or bulgogi; marinated meat grilled over charcoal), and samgyet’ang (a soup of stewed whole chicken stuffed with rice and ginseng), which is eaten as a restorative, particularly during hot weather.

The arts
Traveling troupes that performed shadow or puppet plays, did acrobatics and juggling, danced and sang, and performed versions of court or popular entertainments were long a feature of Korean village and provincial town life. Among the oldest forms of Korean dance and theatre performance is the masked dance. In addition to professional groups, villagers in different areas of the country formed folk groups to perform their own local versions of the sandae masked play and dances. Today the sandae is performed by villagers in Kyŏnggi and South Kyŏngsang provinces as well as in parts of North Korea. Performers are males. Masks cover either the whole head or the face and are made from paper or gourds or, occasionally, are carved from wood. They are boldly painted to represent the stock characters of the play: monks, shaman, noblemen, young dancing girl, and others.

Early settlers
The origin of the city of Kuwait—and of the State of Kuwait—is usually placed at about the beginning of the 18th century, when the Banū (Banī) ʿUtūb, a group of families of the ʿAnizah tribe in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula, migrated to the area that is now Kuwait. The foundation of the autonomous sheikhdom of Kuwait dates from 1756, when the settlers decided to appoint a sheikh from the Ṣabāḥ family (Āl Ṣabāḥ). During the 19th century, Kuwait developed as a thriving independent trading community. Toward the end of the century, one ruler, ʿAbd Allāh II (reigned 1866–92), began to move Kuwait closer to the Ottoman Empire, although he never placed his country under Ottoman rule. That trend was reversed with the accession of Mubārak the Great, who came to power by assassinating his brother ʿAbd Allāh—an act of uncustomary political violence in Kuwait. Ottoman threats to annex Kuwait prompted Mubārak to cultivate a close relationship with Britain. An 1899 treaty basically granted Britain control of Kuwait’s foreign affairs. Following the outbreak of World War I (1914–18), Kuwait became a British protectorate.

At the 1922 Conference of Al-ʿUqayr, Britain negotiated the Kuwait-Saudi border, with substantial territorial loss to Kuwait. A memorandum in 1923 set out the border with Iraq on the basis of an unratified 1913 convention.

The first Iraqi claim to Kuwait surfaced in 1938—the year oil was discovered in the emirate. Although neither Iraq nor the Ottoman Empire had ever actually ruled Kuwait, Iraq asserted a vague historical title. That year it also offered some rhetorical support to a merchant uprising against the emir. Following the failure of the uprising, called the Majlis Movement, Iraq continued to put forth a claim to at least part of Kuwait, notably the strategic islands of Būbiyān and Al-Warbah.

On June 19, 1961, Britain recognized Kuwait’s independence. Six days later, however, Iraq renewed its claim, which was now rebuffed first by British and then by Arab League forces. It was not until October 1963 that a new Iraqi regime formally recognized both Kuwait’s independence and, subsequently, its borders, while continuing to press for access to the islands.

Iran-Iraq War
The Iran-Iraq War of 1980–88 represented a serious threat to Kuwait’s security. Kuwait, fearing Iranian hegemony in the region, saw no alternative to providing Iraq with substantial financial support and serving as a vital conduit for military supplies. Iran attacked a Kuwaiti refinery complex in 1981, which inspired subsequent acts of sabotage in 1983 and 1986. In 1985 a member of the underground pro-Iranian Iraqi radical group al-Daʿwah attempted to assassinate the Kuwaiti ruler, Sheikh Jaber al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah.

In September 1986 Iran began to concentrate its attacks on gulf shipping, largely on Kuwaiti tankers. This led Kuwait to invite both the Soviet Union (with which it had established diplomatic relations in 1963) and the United States to provide protection for its tankers in early 1987. The effect of the war was to promote closer relations with Kuwait’s conservative gulf Arab neighbours (Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, and Oman), with whom Kuwait had formed the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in 1981 in order to develop closer cooperation on economic and security issues. With the end of the Iran-Iraq War in 1988, Iraqi-Kuwaiti relations began to deteriorate. On August 2, 1990, Iraq unexpectedly invaded and conquered the country, precipitating the Persian Gulf War.

Although Iraq advanced several arguments in support of its actions, the basic reasons behind the invasion of Kuwait were the perennial ones that had led earlier Iraqi regimes to seek the same result: control of Kuwait’s oil and wealth, the military advantage of frontage on the Persian Gulf, Pan-Arabism under Iraqi leadership, and a way to generate popular support in the wake of its defeat in the Iran-Iraq War. On August 8 Iraq announced its annexation of Kuwait, in spite of condemnations from the United Nations, the major world powers, the Arab League, and the European Community (now the European Union). The vehement anti-Iraqi feelings harboured by virtually all Kuwaitis, in conjunction with diplomatic efforts by the Kuwaiti government-in-exile in Saudi Arabia, did not stop Iraq from harshly imposing its rule on Kuwait.

Historically, there were several important class divisions in Kuwait. These divisions emerged during the period when the country was a trade entrepôt and were largely economic; thus, as the state became Kuwait’s primary employer after oil was discovered in the 1930s and these reserves were commercially developed in subsequent decades, this class structure became less pronounced. The one historically important class that remains politically important is the old merchant oligarchy, the Banū (Banī) ʿUtūb—of which the ruling family is a member.

Ethnic groups
Despite a government policy to reduce the number of foreign workers following the Iraqi invasion in 1990, Kuwaitis remain a minority in their own country. About two-thirds of the population are expatriate workers, formerly from other Arab states but now largely from South and Southeast Asia. These nonnationals do not enjoy citizenship rights, economic or political, which are reserved for Kuwaiti citizens—defined as those able to prove Kuwaiti ancestry prior to 1920. Naturalization is strictly limited. Arabs—either Bedouin, sedentary, or descendants of immigrants from elsewhere in the region—constitute the largest ethnic group, and a small number of ethnic Persians have resided in the country for centuries.

Languages
The native and official language is Arabic, fluency in which is a requirement for naturalization. Kuwaitis speak a dialect of Gulf Arabic, and Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools. English is the second language taught in public schools. Hindi, Urdu, Persian (Farsi), and other languages also are widely spoken among the foreign population.

Religion
Kuwaiti citizens are almost entirely Muslim, and a law passed in 1981 limits citizenship to Muslims. The majority are Sunni, but about one-third are Shiʿi. Both the Iranian revolution of 1979 and the Kuwaiti government’s subsequent discrimination against the Shiʿah fostered a heightened sense of community among the country’s Shiʿi population in the 1980s and ’90s, and this led to political tension between the two groups.

Although Kuwait embraces many facets of Western culture, the country remains culturally conservative. Its Arab-Islamic heritage permeates daily life. As in much of the Middle East, the rise of Islamic fundamentalism in the 1970s and ’80s was reflected in a general return to traditional customs, as seen in the public dress of women, who began wearing the ḥijāb, or veil, far more than in the past. The right of women to drive automobiles and to work outside the home is generally accepted and has not been a matter of public debate, yet the question of granting women the right to vote has divided Islamists, some of whom seek to enforce even more conservative Islamic standards such as those found in neighbouring Saudi Arabia.

Daily life and social customs
At the heart of traditional Kuwaiti culture is the institution of the diwāniyyah, a regular gathering of men—usually in a tent or a separate room of the main house—which serves as a time to gather, enjoy refreshments, talk, or play games. Kuwaitis observe all major Islamic holidays, including Ramadan and the two ʿīds (festivals), Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha. The country’s Independence Day and Liberation Day (from the Iraqi occupation of 1990–91) are important secular holidays.

Fūl, falafel, and hummus are the cornerstones of Kuwaiti cuisine, though Western fast-food restaurants abound in Kuwait city. Fūl is a paste based on fava beans, with garlic and lemon added. Formed from fried balls of chickpeas and spices, falafel is often served in unleavened bread (khubz) with vegetables. Chickpeas are also used to make hummus, a dip for vegetables and bread. The traditional Kuwaiti meal consists of spiced rice topped with meat or fish or shellfish taken from the Persian Gulf.

The arts
Kuwaiti folk arts remain important, and Bedouin crafts are the most prominent. Though few Bedouins now inhabit Kuwait, their art traditions, especially weaving, have been maintained. The intricately woven fabrics are made on a sadu, a Bedouin loom, and are common sights in souks (bazaars). Sadu House, a museum for Bedouin crafts, offers classes on weaving. Also popular are traditional dances, including the ʿarḍah, which features swords and poetry singing. The government supports the preservation of folk arts and funds numerous organizations, as well as several troupes that perform across the country.

Early history
Kyrgyz history can be traced at least to the 1st century BCE. The probable abodes of the early Kyrgyz were in the upper Yenisey River valley of central Siberia, and the Tashtyk culture (1st century BCE–5th century CE), an amalgam of Asiatic and European peoples, may have been theirs. Chinese and Muslim sources of the 7th–12th century CE describe the Kyrgyz as red-haired with fair complexion and green (blue) eyes. They were viewed as a forest-dwelling “northern” people who used skis and practiced shamanism. In the mid-9th century the Kyrgyz, by then certainly Turkic-speaking, overthrew the Uighur empire in Mongolia but did not settle there; they essentially remained a people of the forest. According to the Persian geography Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam (982), the Kyrgyz lived at the edge of the “Uninhabited Lands of the North”; the 11th-century grammarian Maḥmūd al-Kāshgharī mentions that their language was Turkic. Because of their secluded habitats, the Kyrgyz remained outside the mainstream of Inner Asian history, a fact that allowed them to survive the Mongol deluge that completely altered the Inner Asian political landscape. In 1207 the Kyrgyz surrendered to Genghis Khan’s son Jöchi. By so doing, they not only escaped destruction but also remained beyond the immediate reach of Islam. In the late 16th century shamanism was still flourishing among them.

By the 16th–17th century most of the remaining Kyrgyz tribes lived in the Tien Shan range as mountain nomads, divided into two wings (left and right), though the advancing Russians still encountered remnants of the Yenisey branch of the Kyrgyz. In 1703, under pressure from the Dzungars (a tribe of western Mongols), the Yenisey Kyrgyz moved to the Semirechye, but hostilities between the two peoples continued until China’s defeat of the Dzungar leader Amursana in 1757. In the mid-18th century, nominally at least, the Kyrgyz became part of the Qing (Manchu) empire of China. Between 1825 and 1830 they were conquered by Muhammad ʿAli, the khan of Kokand; Bishkek (Pishpek), the future capital city of the Kyrgyz, was built by that khanate. Through these contacts, Islam was gradually adopted by the more-southern Kyrgyz, although it has remained merely a veneer on the national culture.

Russian and Soviet rule
Between 1835 and 1858 two Tien Shan Kyrgyz tribes, the Sarybagysh and the Bugu, engaged in a fratricidal war in which both sides alternately sought and obtained Kokandian or Russian help. In 1855 the Bugu voluntarily submitted to the Russians, and it was at their request that the Russians built the fort of Aksu in 1863.

The Kyrgyz tribes thus entered the modern era divided, harassed by Russians and Kokandians alike. The periodic revolts of the southern Kyrgyz against the Kokand khanate in the mid-19th century received no Russian support. But Russian immigration into Kyrgyz territories, rather than warfare, posed the real threat to Kyrgyz existence. Poor Russian peasants escaping from servitude and famine appropriated the winter pasturelands of the Kyrgyz, forcing them to move into the mountains. The Russian colonists did teach the Kyrgyz some new agricultural techniques, but on the whole their impact was nothing short of disastrous. In 1916 Kyrgyz discontent erupted in a serious revolt, which was met with brutal and prolonged repression that continued even after the fall of Russia’s tsarist regime.

Under Soviet rule the Kyrgyz found it difficult to assert themselves as a separate national entity. Confusion concerning their very name persists in the West because, under the tsars, the Kyrgyz were wrongly labeled Kara-Kirgiz in order to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, whom the Russians called Kirgiz to distinguish them from the Cossacks (Russian: Kazaky). In 1924 an autonomous Kirgiz oblast (province) was created within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. In 1926 its status was transformed into that of an autonomous republic, and in 1936 a full union republic was created, the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic, often called Kirgiziya.

In the second half of the 20th century, economic progress and general modernization did not succeed in eradicating tensions between Russians and Kyrgyz. Among the Central Asian republics of the former Soviet Union, Kyrgyzstan was perhaps the most eager to obtain full independence. After more than 1,000 years of disunity, statelessness, and foreign subjection, Kyrgyzstan joined the world’s independent countries on August 31, 1991.

Independent Kyrgyzstan
Early independence and the presidency of Askar Akayev
Under President Askar Akayev, Kyrgyzstan developed all the institutions of a modern democracy, including an open press, an independent judiciary, and a freely elected parliament. Yet the new country experienced numerous challenges. Kyrgyzstan saw a sharp economic decline beginning in the mid-1990s, in part because of a shortage of raw materials and the emigration of many Russian and German professionals. Moreover, Akayev’s government was accused of widespread corruption, and the president was denounced for abusing his power. The press, though ostensibly free, was subject to official intimidation and, from 1995, to a series of state regulations.

The country’s main external threat was the infiltration of large numbers of Islamist guerrillas moving between Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. In 2001 the government granted U.S. and allied forces the right to establish a base at Manas to conduct operations against the Taliban and al-Qaeda in Afghanistan. A Russian air base was established in Kyrgyzstan in 2003 to support a Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) rapid reaction force intended to defend CIS countries from Islamist guerrillas. The lease with Russia was renewed in 2012 for a 15-year extension while in 2013 the Kyrgyz parliament voted overwhelmingly to end the U.S. lease. U.S. forces withdrew from the base in July 2014.

The Tulip Revolution and the presidency of Kurmanbek Bakiyev
Flawed parliamentary elections in 2005 and a widespread perception of government corruption led to mass demonstrations in March of that year. The “Tulip Revolution,” quite surprisingly, led to the sudden and rapid collapse of the Akayev government. The president fled the country on March 24 and resigned several days later. In July elections, which were largely deemed free and fair by Western observers, Kurmanbek Bakiyev was chosen president.

The period following Bakiyev’s election was marked by political instability as the new president worked to assert his authority. Although Bakiyev employed a number of authoritarian practices to consolidate his power—including undermining the opposition and promoting associates and relatives to important posts—he neither achieved full authority nor moved Kyrgyz politics firmly into authoritarianism. Bakiyev faced emerging criticism on a number of key issues, however, including a perceived increase in corruption, which had been a central factor leading to the demonstrations against the government he had been elected to replace. In addition, the parliament installed under Akayev by the flawed elections of 2005 remained a locus of political instability, and Bakiyev’s failure to hold new parliamentary elections was widely criticized.

In October 2007 a referendum proposing a new code of electoral law and a series of significant constitutional changes was overwhelmingly approved in an election criticized by observers for its failure to meet international standards. The referendum increased the number of seats in parliament and provided for their allotment on the basis of party lists rather than individual candidacy; this was widely seen as a move by Bakiyev to bolster his newly formed Ak Zhol party and further undermine the opposition. The referendum also granted the president the right to dissolve the government at will. Bakiyev accordingly did so immediately following the announcement of the referendum results and called for early elections, which were held in December. Ak Zhol won the majority of the seats, controlling nearly four-fifths of the newly expanded Kyrgyz parliament. Although Bakiyev lauded the election proceedings, both local and international observers expressed concern about reports of widespread violations, including purchased votes and the elimination of opposition candidates from the election.

As Bakiyev’s term progressed, opposition figures accused him of intimidation and a dwindling tolerance for dissent. In the period leading up to the presidential election of 2009, in which Bakiyev sought reelection, attacks on journalists were perpetrated with increasing frequency and were criticized by observers as an attempt to stifle dissent. The election was held on July 23, 2009, and, as voting progressed, Bakiyev’s main challenger alleged widespread electoral fraud and effectively withdrew himself from the race before the polls had even closed. Official election results credited Bakiyev with a landslide victory of more than three-fourths of the vote, although international observers likewise expressed concerns with the conduct of the election.

Protest against Bakiyev’s increasingly authoritarian policies and accusations of corruption both played a role in the outbreak of violent unrest in April 2010, but the more immediate cause appeared to be a steep increase in the cost of utilities. In early April, thousands of protesters attempted to storm the main government building in Bishkek in an apparent effort to overthrow the government. Failing to disperse the crowds with tear gas and stun grenades, riot police fired with live ammunition, killing some 80 people and wounding hundreds more. On April 7 the Kyrgyz government declared a state of emergency in response to the unrest as simultaneous demonstrations broke out in Naryn, Tokmak, and Talas, where protesters seized government offices. By the early hours of April 8, Bakiyev had fled the capital by plane, and the opposition had announced the formation of an interim government.

Although he issued statements condemning the events, Bakiyev’s precise whereabouts were unclear until several days later, when he emerged near Jalal-Abad, farther south. Meanwhile, the opposition, led by former foreign minister Roza Otunbayeva, worked to consolidate its hold on power, replacing government officials in numerous positions and holding conversations with U.S. and Russian leaders. Although Bakiyev initially insisted that he retained popular support and would not step down, the opposition claimed to have received his resignation, and on April 15 Bakiyev departed Kyrgyzstan, leaving the country in the hands of the interim government with Otunbayeva serving as president. Several days later, however, from exile in Belarus, Bakiyev denied having resigned and insisted that he was still in fact the country’s legitimate president. Meanwhile, as looting and unrest sparked by the political conflict continued, the interim government authorized the use of deadly force to restore order.

Almost two months after the transfer of power, ethnic violence between the Kyrgyz majority and the Uzbek minority erupted in the south of the country, particularly in and around Osh. With the interim government unable to bring the region under its control, this outbreak of violence resulted in the deaths of scores of Uzbeks and a smaller number of Kyrgyz, as well as the dislocation of hundreds of thousands. Reports also alleged that atrocities had been committed by Kyrgyz troops, suggesting that the military was not fully under government control. The interim government did not immediately respond to these allegations and instead accused Bakiyev of fomenting the unrest. Meanwhile, Uzbeks claimed zones of autonomy in the south and refused to account to the central government, threatening to fracture the country.

Although the violence had cast into doubt the ability of the interim government to hold a scheduled referendum on a new constitution, in late June the vote took place as planned. The new constitution was approved by some 90 percent of voters in an election international observers held to be free and fair.

Ethnic groups
The Kyrgyz, formerly a transhumant (nomadic) people, were settled into collectivized agriculture by the Soviet regime. Besides Kyrgyz, the country’s population includes minorities of Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, and Germans (exiled to the region from European parts of the Soviet Union in 1941), as well as Tatars, Kazakhs, Dungans (Hui; Chinese Muslims), Uighurs, and Tajiks. Since independence in 1991, many Russians and Germans have emigrated. Nearly three-fourths of the population is Kyrgyz, while about one-seventh is Uzbek. The other ethnic groups make up the remaining one-eighth of the population.

Languages
Most Kyrgyz speak a language belonging to the northwestern group of the Turkic languages, especially Kyrgyz. A sizeable minority speak Uzbek, a Turkic language of the southeastern branch. Russian is also spoken, and official language status has been accorded to both Kyrgyz and Russian.

Cultural Life
Starting in the 1920s and ’30s, several Kyrgyz-language newspapers appeared regularly in the republic, but they were subject to Soviet censorship. With the collapse of Moscow’s control over the press, the editorial policies of the republic’s publications have changed noticeably, and new press outlets have appeared, though press freedom has occasionally been curtailed. Kyrgyzstan has a television network, extensive radio broadcasting, cinemas, and theatres. Kyrgyz cultural life has been greatly influenced by the rich oral literary tradition (including epic cycles and lyric poetry) of the region, by the development of a modern literary language, and by the change from the Arabic alphabet to Roman and finally to Cyrillic (with diacritical markings added) beginning in 1940. The Kyrgyz planned a return to the Roman alphabet in the 1990s, in concert with the other Turkic-speaking countries of Central Asia. Kyrgyz folk singers still recite the lengthy verse epic Manas and other heroic and lyric poetry, often to the accompaniment of the three-stringed komuz, which is plucked like a lute.

During the Soviet period Kyrgyz poets strove to adjust their writings to communist ideology and the tenets of Socialist Realism. But the character of Kyrgyz cultural life has undergone considerable change in the wake of the dissolution of the Communist Party and the cessation of its tight ideological controls.

The Kyrgyz take pride in the renown of Chingiz Aytmatov, a novelist and storywriter who wrote mainly in Russian but also in Kyrgyz. His Povesti gor i stepey (1963; Tales of Mountains and Steppes) and the more recent I dol’she veka dlit’sia den’ (1980; The Day Lasts More than a Hundred Years) and Plakha (1986; The Place of the Skull) have received wide circulation in Russian and in English translations. Aytmatov’s play Voskhozhdenie na Fudziiamu (1973; The Ascent of Mt. Fuji), written with Kazakh playwright Kaltay Muhamedjanov, discusses rather openly the moral compromises made under the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin. This play created a sensation when it was first staged in Moscow in 1973 and later in English-language productions abroad.

State-sponsored folk dance troupes, a theatre of opera and ballet, and the Kyrgyzstan Philharmonic Orchestra perform in concert halls and theatre buildings erected during the Soviet period. The Museum of History and the Arts is located in Bishkek.

A trip through Lebanon is a journey through the annals of some of the world’s greatest civilizations. With over 5,000 years of recorded history, the country is a treasure trove of archaeological wonders, waiting to be discovered by visitors who want a glimpse into the ancient and modern past. Most of Lebanon’s historical sites have layers upon layers of ruins, with each layer uncovering the story of another civilization that inhabited this ancient land.
– Prehistoric Times
– Phoenicians
– Greeks
– Romans
– Byzantines
– Arabs
– Crusaders
– Mamlukes & Ottomans

Prehistoric Times (5,000-3,500 B.C.)
A trip through Lebanon’s history begins in Jbail (Byblos), where archaeologists have discovered the earliest known settlements in Lebanon. Today, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.

Phoenicians (3,500-334 B.C.)
Lebanon first appeared in recorded history around 3,000 BC, with the settlement of the area by the Canaanites. The Canaanites established great maritime, trade, and religious city-states in several of Lebanon’s coastal cities: Jbail (Byblos), Sour (Tyre), Saida (Sidon), and Beirut. The Greeks referred to these Semitic people as “Phoenicians,” after the Greek word for the expensive purple-dyed textiles that the Phoenicians exported.

Jbail (Byblos) was a significant Phoenician religious center and also an important trading center with close links to the Egyptian Pharaohs. The city is also recognized as the birthplace of the modern Roman alphabet, which evolved from Phoenician phonetic script. Phoenician ruins include the remnants of fortified city walls and gates, several temples, and the underground tombs of the Byblos kings.

Saida (Sidon) became a dominant commercial center for the region during the 12th-10th centuries B.C. Close to Saida (Sidon), visitors can view the ruins of the Phoenician Temple of Echmoun, a complex honoring the principal god of the city of Saida (Sidon). This is the best-preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon today.
The Phoenician island city of Sour (Tyre) surpassed Saida to become the dominant trading center under its most famous ruler, King Hiram I (10th century B.C.). Allied with King Solomon, King Hiram I led the Phoenician expansion into Sicily and North Africa. During this time, the Mediterranean Sea became known as the “Tyrian Sea.” King Hiram is also remembered for supporting the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem by supplying labor, gold, and cedar wood. While there are few evident Phoenician ruins in Sour (Tyre) today, visitors can see the jetties and breakwaters from the ancient island cities just off the coast of the city. The Tomb of King Hiram is also located just a few kilometers from Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek was an inland city, at the crossroads of the major north-south and east-west trading routes, settled by the Phoenicians as early as 2,000 B.C. The Phoenicians built the first temple here, dedicated to the god Baal, the Sun God, from which the city got its name. Today, Baalbek’s Phoenician origins have been covered and eclipsed by the great Roman temples later built on the site.

Greeks (333-64 B.C.)
In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Phoenician city-states, and ancient Phoenicia was absorbed into the Greek Empire (which covered Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East). Greek customs and the Greek language were adopted. Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. (only 10 years after his conquest of the Middle East), and over 250 years of unrest and dynastic struggles followed. Greek rule in the region was finally overturned by the Roman General Pompey in 64 B.C.
While there are no significant ruins from the Hellenistic period in Lebanon, one notable Greek site for history-lovers is in Sour (Tyre). While most of the Phoenician cities submitted immediately to Alexander the Great’s conquest in 333 B.C., Sour (Tyre) resisted in a year-long siege that destroyed much of the city. Alexander used the debris from the abandoned mainland city to build a causeway to reach the fortified island city and eventually conquer the Tyrians. Today, this causeway has been enlarged with sand to form a peninsula that connects the ancient island city to the mainland. As you walk between the major archaeological sites in Sour (Tyre), you will cross this “Quarter of Sand” (Hay El-Ramel) that was once Alexander’s causeway.

Romans (64 B.C. – 399 A.D.)
Roman rule in Lebanon lasted over 300 years. During this period, the old Phoenician cities continued to grow and prosper as centers of industry and commerce. The coastal cities (Saida, Sour, Beirut) exported cedar, perfume, jewelry, wine, and fruit to Rome and served as trading centers for goods imported from Syria, Persia, and India. Local industries, including the production of silk, glass, purple-dyed textiles, and pottery, flourished under the Romans. Temples and palaces were built throughout the country, as well as paved roads that linked the cities. Christianity also spread to Lebanon during this era, and flourished as the Roman emperors officially adopted the religion.
For a modern-day visitor, it is difficult to travel more than a few kilometers in Lebanon without running into a Roman-era ruin. The country is home to some of the best-preserved and most impressive Roman sites in the world, most notably at Baalbek and Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek’s impressive complex of temples and city ruins includes the Temple of Bacchus (the best-preserved temple in the Middle East) and the columns of the Temple of Jupiter (the largest Roman temple ever constructed). Under the Romans, Baalbek, or the “City of the Sun,” was a major religious center that served as a testament to the power and wealth of the Roman Empire.

The city of Sour (Tyre) became the capital of the Roman province of Syria-Phoenicia. Roman-era highlights include the world’s largest Roman hippodrome (where chariot races were held), an enormous triumphal arch, an extensive necropolis, and the remains of Roman aqueducts.
In Jbail (Byblos), artifacts include the remains of a Roman theater, columns lining the main thoroughfare of the ancient city, and a Roman nympheum (a monumental public fountain).

In the Central Business District of Beirut, visitors can view the remains of a large Roman bath complex and a market area, as well as the columns and foundations of large buildings.

Byzantines (399-636 A.D.)
The Byzantine era in Lebanon began with the split of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D. into the eastern/Byzantine part (with its capital at Constantinople) and the western part (with its capital at Rome). As the Western Roman Empire declined, the Byzantine Empire grew and commercial and intellectual growth in Lebanon’s cities continued.

However, around the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., ecumenical debates and corruption in the church led to increasing unrest. From this religious dissension, the Maronite Church was established and took refuge in the mountainous Qadisha Valley region of Lebanon, and the Valley has remained a place of spiritual refuge and pilgrimage to this day. There are many archaeological remains of Lebanon’s Byzantine era around the country, many built on top of and added to previous civilizations’ cities and sites.

In Baalbek, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of the Temple of Jupiter and built a basilica using the temple’s stones and architectural elements. The remnants of this basilica can still be seen near the stairway of the Temple.

In Sour (Tyre), the city entered a golden era during this time period. Today, Byzantine stone mosaics line the ancient colonnaded street at the Al-Mina archaeological site (“City Site”). The Al-Bass Site contains the remains of a Byzantine church, as well as a necropolis containing hundreds of ornate stone and marble sarcophagi from the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Arabs (660-1258 A.D.)
Many clashes took place at this period between the Byzantine Empire and its opponents mainly the Muslims whose widespread reached the borders of the empire.
The Umayyad Dynasty, which flourished for 100 years (660-750 A.D.) in the first century after Muhammed, was the first of two dynasties of the Arab Islamic empire. The Umayyad caliphs were notable for establishing a large empire, which extended from Spain, through North Africa, to Central Asia. They established Arabic as the official language of the empire, and they are remembered for their excellent city administration and planning and their patronage of early Islamic art and architecture. Following a coup, the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258 A.D.), who shifted power eastward to Baghdad and imposed harsh control in Lebanon and Syria, leading to many local revolts.

Under Arab rule, the region of Lebanon became a refuge for many ethnic and religious groups. Splinter Christian groups, including the Maronites and the Melchites, settled in the Qadisha Valley and Zahlé. Islamic followers of an Egyptian caliph settled in southern Lebanon and established the Druze sect, still a major religious group in the Chouf and other areas of modern-day Lebanon. Shiite Muslims from Egypt also had increasing influence in the region during this era.
Lebanon’s cities continued to prosper as trading and industrial centers under Arab rule. However, there are few archaeological remnants of this period in Lebanon today.

The impressive city of Aanjar is the only known remain of the 8th century Umayyad Dynasty in Lebanon. Thought to be the summer home of Caliph Walid I, Aanjar was a major commercial center for the region and contains the remains of over 600 small shops, colonnaded boulevards, baths, and temples.

Crusaders (1099-1291 A.D.)
As Arab leadership fragmented, and following Caliph Al-Hakim’s occupation of Christian holy places in Palestine and destruction of the Holy Sepulcher, the Christians of western Europe undertook a series of “Crusades” to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. The European Crusaders joined with the Byzantine army to take Jerusalem and then marched along the Lebanese coast. Between 1109 and 1124, Lebanon’s key cities (Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, Sour) were all conquered by the Crusaders. Soon after, the Muslim reconquest began, led by Saladin, with the region returning to Muslim control by 1291.

One lasting influence of the Crusades in Lebanon was the creation of renewed linkages between the Maronites and the Roman Catholics. In 1180, the Maronite Church entered a formal union with the Roman Catholic Church, a union that still exists today. There are also numerous archaeological remnants (towers, castles, and churches) of the Crusades scattered along the Lebanese coast and throughout the countryside. Notable sites include:

The Saida Sea Castle, which sits on a small island in the harbor, connected by a stone bridge to mainland Saida (Sidon).
The Citadel of Saint-Gilles, a large fortress on a hill in the center of Tripoli.
The ruins of the stone walls and moats of a Crusader castle can be seen in the town of Enfé, south of Tripoli.
The ruins of the Holy Cross Cathedral, an important Crusader church in Sour (Tyre).

Mamlukes (1250-1516 A.D.) & Ottomans (1516-1914 A.D.)
Following the Crusades, modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt came under the control of the Mamlukes. The Mamlukes were originally slave bodyguards (from the Caspian and Caucasus regions) for the Egyptian Ayoubid sultans. However, the Mamlukes overthrew their masters and formed the Mamluke Sultanate. Many Shiite Muslims migrated to Lebanon during this period, and there were increasing religious tensions. After a number of rebellions near Beirut were crushed, the Shiites moved to settle in Southern Lebanon.

The Mamlukes were defeated by the Turkish Ottomans in 1516, and the Ottomans dominated the region for the four centuries preceding World War I.

A tour in the Lebanese History:
At origins: Archeologists in Lebanon have discovered remnants around a million years old, and human traces from the Paleolithic era (around 8,500 B.C.) in grottos.

The Phoenician Era: The history of Lebanon as we know it starts with the Cannanean – Phoenician civilizations. Around 3,500 B.C., the Phoenicians put up their trading counters on the Lebanese coast. These trading city-states rapidly become small yet wealthy kingdoms, like Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Arados.
800 B.C.: The Phoenician’s long-lived prosperity starts to decline with the uprising of the Assyrian empire. The latter will be followed by the Babylonians, the Persians and the Greeks.
64 B.C.: The last of the Phoenician cities surrender to the Syrian province of the Roman Empire after their conquest of Pompée.
Up to the year 395 A.C: Commercial and cultural activities prosper and Christianity develops under the Roman domination. Then the Byzantine Empire takes over the control of the region.
637 A.C: Lebanon is conquered by the Arabs and becomes a state of the Omayyad califes before it becomes dominated by the Francs from 1099 to 1291 A.C..
1291 to 1516 A.C.: The crusaders are driven away by the Mamelouks who develop Beirut’s commercial port’s activities.
1516 to 1918 A.C.: The Ottomans reign over the country as masters, however leaving its management to the local emirs.
During the 19th century: Lebanons’ fate vacillates between the Ottoman power and an autonomy that was imposed by Europe. The latter supported the local development of religious communities. A portion of the country’s population, supported by the Europeans, demands its autonomy.
1841: The Mount Lebanon Province is divided into two districts: to the North, the maronites (Bikfaya and the Metn), and to the South the Druze (Beit ed-Dine and the Chouf).
1860: Following the massacre of thousands of Christians by the Druze and Ottomans, Napoleon the 3rd sends an expeditionary mission to Lebanon. This will lead to the autonomy of Lebanon in 1864.
1866: The American University in Beirut is founded.
1875: The St Joseph University is founded.
1916: France and Great Britain sign the Sykes-Picot treaties. Russia ratifies the treaties which separate the Ottoman Empire into influential zones. France awards itself the libanese-syrian coastal strip, among other territories.
1920: Marks the start of the French mandate following the signature of the Sèvres treaty. The state of Great Lebanon is proclaimed.
1943: The independence of the Lebanese Republic is effective on the 22nd of November. Bechara El-Khoury and Ryad Solh conclude a “national pact” which sets the rules of representation for each religious community.
1945: Lebanon participates to the foundation of the Arab League.
1946: French troops leave Lebanon from March to December. The first twenty years of independence are those of great economic prosperity in the Lebanese Republic.
1958: Lebanon is shaken by a civil war (May till September) that is motivated by a disagreement on Egypt and Syria’s joining into the United Arab Republic. President Camille Chamoun, who was opposed to Gamal A.Nasser, calls the United States to the rescue in an effort to save his regime. American troops are sent to Lebanon, however it is the election of President General Chehab that will resolve the crisis. The latter will conduct a policy centered on Arab solidarity.
1967: The 6 Days war drives around 450,000 Palestinians to find refuge in Lebanon.
1969: The first conflict between the Lebanese Government and the Palestinian movement leads to the Cairo agreements which authorized the presence of the Palestinian army in South Lebanon.
1973: Confrontations between the Lebanese army and the Palestinian PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) militia become more and more frequent. Moreover, a number of Palestinian leaders are assassinated by the Israeli commandos. Tension builds up and leads to the burst of the civil war in April 1975.
1975 – 1989: Lebanon endures the civil war.
1976: Syrian troops make an entry in Lebanon in June.
1978: The Syrian troops turn against the Lebanese “Phalangistes”, while Israel occupies the southern Lebanese territory up to the Litani river.
1982: Israel initiates operation “Peace in Galilee” and reaches Beyrouth. The siege of the capital forces the PLO and its leader to flee Beyrouth. The same year, the massacres of the Sabra and Chatila camps are perpetrated.
1984: The Multinational Peace Force leaves Lebanon as violence takes on new heights.
1985: Israel retrieves from the Lebanese Territory but retains the control of a “Security Zone” on the Southern border.
1989: The Taëf agreements are signed on the 22nd of October in Saudi Arabia, thus putting an end to the civil war. The agreements recommend an equitable redistribution of power and a revision of the Lebanese constitution. Following the assassination of President René Moawad, Elias Hraoui is elected to the Presidency of the Lebanese Republic.
1990: The 2nd Lebanese Republic is proclaimed.
1991: Lebanon and Syria sign a common treaty. The new national coalition government summons the break down of armed militias.
1992: Rafic Hariri is elected Prime Minister in October, and the reconstruction of the country and its capital begins.
1996: Israel launches an armed operation called “the Grapes of Wrath” against the Hezbollah positions in Southern Lebanon.
1998: General Emile Lahoud is elected President on the 24th of November.
2000: In May, Israel retrieves its troops from the south.
2005: On the 14th of February, Prime Minister Rafic Hariri is killed, along with 22 others, in a car bomb attack.
2005: In April, Syria retrieves all of its troops from Lebanon in accordance with an agreement signed with the UN.
2006: Israel carries a military offensive in Lebanon from the 12th until the 14th of August.
2008:(25 May) the election of General Michel Sleiman as President of the republic.

Lebanon’s diverse patchwork of Mediterranean-lapped coast, rugged alpine peaks, and green fertile valleys is packed into a parcel of land some 225km long and 46km wide – an area approximately the size of Cyprus or Connecticut. An ancient land, Lebanon features in the writings of Homer and in the Old Testament. Its cities were major outposts and seaports in Phoenician and Roman times, just two of the great civilizations that touched this important Middle Eastern crossroads.

The cosmopolitan flair of modern-day Beirut, the gastronomic renown of the country’s food and wine, and an educated and outward-looking population complement a country that is both traditional and progressive in outlook. For all the flavors of its storied past and rugged natural beauty, Lebanon is a well-kept tourist secret that begs exploration.

There are four main geographic regions in Lebanon, differentiated by topography and climate. From west to east, they include: the coastal plain, the Mount Lebanon Range, the Békaa Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon Range.

The Anti-Lebanon Range is a stretch of arid mountains that rise to the east of the Békaa Valley and form part of the country’s eastern border with Syria.

The Békaa Valley, known in ancient times as “the breadbasket” or “granary” of the Roman Empire, is still the country’s main agricultural region. Located on a high plateau between the country’s two mountain ranges, the river-fed Békaa supports the production of tomatoes, potatoes, wheat, olives, and grapes, even despite summers that are hot and dry.

Besides some of Lebanon’s best wineries (Ksara, Kefraya, Massaya), the Békaa’s major attraction is the ruins at Baalbek. Originating as a place of worship to Baal, the Phoenician Sun God, Baalbek was known in Greco-Roman times as the famous Heliopolis, or “City of the Sun.” Perhaps because of the region’s agricultural importance in feeding the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, some of the largest Roman temples ever constructed were erected at this site. The construction lasted over 200 years, and the well-preserved temples honor Jupiter, Bacchus, and Venus.

The lovely Lebanese coast is framed by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Mount Lebanon Range to the east, its temperate climate bringing in sunny, hot summers and cool, rainy winters. The daytime temperature in the summer, which averages 30°C (86°F), encourages people to head to the beach or to the higher, altitude-cooled mountain slopes. In the coastal cities of Saida (Sidon) and Jbail (Byblos), tourists can enjoy the rare opportunity to snorkel amongst long-submerged Phoenician ruins, while excellent hiking is a mere hour away in the Chouf region of the Mount Lebanon Range.

The Mount Lebanon Range includes numerous rivers that fizz with snowmelt, steep-walled gullies that shade grottoes once the hideout to those fleeing persecution, and also Lebanon’s highest summit, Qornet Es-Saouda (3,090m). In winter, the high peaks are blanketed with snow, lending Lebanon its name, Lubnan, the Arabic word for “white.” Lebanon boasts a number of world-class ski resorts, one of only a couple countries in the Middle East where you can ski. The ski season runs from December until April.

The Mount Lebanon Range is also the location of Lebanon’s Cedar Reserves. The great cedar forests of Lebanon, now protected, are famous for their use in the construction of some of the holiest buildings in the region, indeed the world, including Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock and Solomon’s Temple.

To visit Lebanon is to dispel preconceived notions that linger from a relatively short moment in a long, vivid, and fascinating history: drink in the energetic, urbane vibe of revitalized Beirut; explore a diverse and beautiful landscape that lends itself easily to an unforgettable (and largely untrammeled) multi-sport adventure; marvel at archaeological wonders that are windows into the cradle of civilization; and simply enjoy the welcome of a people who are naturally hospitable, friendly, and gregarious.

Ethnic and linguistic composition
Lebanon has a heterogeneous society composed of numerous ethnic, religious, and kinship groups. Long-standing attachments and local communalism antedate the creation of the present territorial and political entity and continue to survive with remarkable tenacity. Ethnically, the Lebanese compose a mixture in which Phoenician, Greek, Armenian, and Arab elements are discernible. Within the larger Lebanese community, ethnic minorities including Armenian and Kurdish populations are also present. Arabic is the official language, although smaller proportions of the population are Armenian- or Kurdish-speaking; French and English are also spoken. Syriac is used in some of the churches of the Maronites (Roman Catholics following an Eastern rite).

Religion
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Lebanon’s social structure is its varied religious composition. Since the 7th century, Lebanon has served as a refuge for persecuted Christian and Muslim groups. As religion and government in Lebanon are deeply and formally intertwined, the relative proportions of the country’s religious communities is a highly sensitive matter. There has not been an official census since 1932, however, and the data depicting Lebanon’s confessional composition are variable. In general terms, the two largest groups are the Shiʿi Muslims and the Sunni Muslims, each comprising more than one-fourth of the population. Maronites, a Roman Catholic Eastern rite group that originated in the region, make up more than one-fifth of the population. A number of other Christian communities are also present, including the Greek Orthodox and the Greek Catholics. The Druze constitute a small percentage of the population but play an influential role in Lebanese society. There is also a very small Jewish minority.

Cultural milieu
Historically, Lebanon is heir to a long succession of Mediterranean cultures—Phoenician, Greek, and Arab. Its cultural milieu continues to show clear manifestations of a rich and diverse heritage. As an Arab country, Lebanon shares more than a common language with neighbouring Arab states: it also has a similar cultural heritage and common interests.

A number of Lebanon’s rich cultural sites have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites: the remains of the city of ʿAnjar (founded by al-Walīd in the early 8th century); the ruins of successive cultures at the old Phoenician cities of Baalbek, Byblos, and Tyre; and the Christian monasteries in Wadi Qādīshā, together with the nearby remains of a sacred forest of long-prized cedar.

Daily life and social customs
Lebanon’s diverse culture is a result of its admixture of various religious, linguistic, and socioeconomic groups. Family and kinship play a central role in Lebanese social relationships, in both the private and public spheres. Although family structure is traditionally largely patriarchal, women are active in education and politics.

Lebanese cuisine is characterized by a healthy mixture of herbs and vegetables, fruit, olives, olive oil, laban (yogurt), rice, and khubz (flatbread). Meals often consist of a selection of shared dishes presented all at once on several small plates, often including hummus, stuffed grape leaves, pickled vegetables, grilled meats, and tabbouleh (tabbūlah), a salad made from herbs, tomato, onion, bulgur wheat, lemon juice, and olive oil. Kibbah, an oval ball of seasoned meat stuffed into a dough made from bulgur and meat, is often considered the national dish.

Because of the country’s diverse religious makeup, Lebanese citizens observe a variety of holidays. Those celebrated by the Christian community include Easter and Christmas, the dates of which vary, as elsewhere, between the Catholic and Orthodox communities. Eid al-Fitr (which marks the end of Ramadan), Eid al-Adha (which marks the culmination of the hajj), and the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday are celebrated by Lebanese Muslims; ʿĀshūrāʾ, a holiday particular to Shiʿi Muslims, is also observed. In addition, there are several national holidays, including Liberation Day on May 25 and Independence Day on November 22.

The arts
Lebanon’s antiquities and ruins have provided not only inspiration for artists but also magnificent backdrops for annual music festivals, most notably the Baalbek International Festival. At one time, international opera, ballet, symphony, and drama companies of nearly all nationalities competed to enrich the cultural life of Beirut. Following the end of the civil war in 1990, Lebanon’s cultural life gradually began to reemerge, though that revival remained subject to interruption by periods of violence in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Lebanon has produced a number of gifted young artists who have shown a refreshing readiness to experiment with new expressive forms. Some Lebanese are active in international opera, theatre companies, and television and movie productions, while others are intent on creating a wider audience for classical Arabic music and theatre. Other artists have remained cultural staples for many years: with a career spanning several decades, the immensely popular Lebanese singer Fairouz (Fayrūz) remains a well-known vocalist and a treasured cultural icon.

The cultural awakening encouraged the revival of national folk arts, particularly song, dabkah (the national dance), and zajal (folk poetry), and the refinement of traditional crafts.

In the 19th century Lebanese linguists were in the vanguard of the Arabic literary awakening (al-nahḍah al-adabiyyah). In more recent times writers of the calibre of Khalil Gibran, Georges Shehade, Michel Chiha, and Hanan al-Shaykh have been widely translated and have reached an international audience.